Wrestling Injury: Louie Martinez has had the pleasure of being a wrestling coach for approximately 15 years. Through his experience, Coach Martinez understands the importance of chiropractic care for the wrestler. Sports injuries can commonly occur in wrestling, however, Louie Martinez explains how with Dr. Alex Jimenez, it’s only a matter of visiting his clinic to receive the proper treatment to return-to-play. Coach Louie Martinez also describes how Dr. Alex Jimenez helped his sons, whom are also wrestlers, develop their overall potential.
Sports injuries are injuries which occur in sports, exercise or athletic activities. In the United States, there are approximately 30 million teens and kids alone that participate in some type of organized physical activity. About 3 million athletes, about 14 years of age and under, experience sports injuries yearly, which causes loss of time participating in their specific sport, exercise or athletic activities. Prevention helps reduce potential sport injuries. It is important to set up involvement in warm-ups, stretching, and exercises which focus on primary muscle groups commonly utilized in the sport of interest.
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Psychological therapy, also known as psychotherapy, refers to the use of psychological methods to help change an individual’s way of thinking as well as improve their coping skills in order for them to learn how to best deal with stress. Psychological therapies have widely been utilized as a part of the multidisciplinary management of chronic pain. Common psychotherapies include, cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based stress reduction and even chiropractic care. The connection between the mind and the body in relation to disease and illness have long been discussed in many research studies.
Evidence-based research studies have demonstrated that proper stress management through the use of psychological therapy as well as mindfulness interventions can effectively benefit patients with chronic pain. By way of instance, chiropractic care can safely and effectively help reduce stress, anxiety and depression by correcting spinal misalignments, or subluxation. A balanced spine can improve mood and mental health. Chiropractic care can include lifestyle modifications, such as nutritional advice, physical activity and exercise recommendations, and promote better sleeping habits, to further enhance the benefits of the treatment. The purpose of the following article is to demonstrate how psychological therapies impact the management of chronic pain.
Psychological Therapies for the Management of Chronic Pain
Abstract
Pain is a complex stressor that presents a significant challenge to most aspects of functioning and contributes to substantial physical, psychological, occupational, and financial cost, particularly in its chronic form. As medical intervention frequently cannot resolve pain completely, there is a need for management approaches to chronic pain, including psychological intervention. Psychotherapy for chronic pain primarily targets improvements in physical, emotional, social, and occupational functioning rather than focusing on resolution of pain itself. However, psychological therapies for chronic pain differ in their scope, duration, and goals, and thus show distinct patterns of treatment efficacy. These therapies fall into four categories: operant-behavioral therapy, cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based therapy, and acceptance and commitment therapy. The current article explores the theoretical distinctiveness, therapeutic targets, and effectiveness of these approaches as well as mechanisms and individual differences that factor into treatment response and pain-related dysfunction and distress. Implications for future research, dissemination of treatment, and the integration of psychological principles with other treatment modalities are also discussed.
Chiropractic care is an alternative treatment option which utilizes spinal adjustments and manual manipulations to treat injuries and/or conditions associated with the musculoskeletal and nervous system. Chiropractic treatment primarily focuses on spinal health, however, because the spine is the root of the nervous system, chiropractic care can also be effectively used to treat a variety of mental health issues. As a chiropractor, I make sure to focus on the body as a whole, rather than treating the symptoms of a single injury and/or condition. The truth of the matter is, chiropractic treatment must also deal with the emotional component of each health issue in order to provide overall relief. Psychosomatic disorders, refers to a physical illness caused or aggravated by a mental factor, such as stress. Chiropractic care can be utilized as a psychological therapy, in which, a chiropractor may recommend a series of lifestyle modifications to help reduce stress, anxiety and depression, together with spinal adjustments and manual manipulations to reduce symptoms associated with mental health issues. Furthermore, the understanding of the connection between the mind and body is essential in chiropractic treatment towards overall health and wellness.
Introduction to the Non-Pharmacological Treatment of Pain
Pain is an essential biological function that signals disturbance or damage in the body, prevents further harm through overuse of the afflicted area, and promotes physiological homeostasis.[1] Whether through abnormal healing, additional bodily damage, or failed medical intervention, pain may become chronic. Chronic pain no longer signals damage to the body and is instead a detriment to the physical and psychological well-being of the sufferer. Unfortunately, medical intervention frequently cannot resolve chronic pain, resulting in increased need for management approaches to pain, as is the approach to other chronic medical conditions.[2] In recent years, the biopsychosocial model has informed research and intervention in pain psychology, wherein physical, cognitive, affective, and interpersonal factors are used to inform treatment.[2] Currently, psychological interventions for chronic pain target a variety of domains, including physical functioning, pain medication use, mood, cognitive patterns, and quality of life, while changes in pain intensity may be secondary.[3] As such, psychological interventions for pain are ideally suited as complementary treatments to medical treatment.[4] In order to articulate the distinct philosophies and effects of each psychological intervention, it is important to first consider the variety of ways that pain affects psychological functioning.
Psychological Reactions to Pain
Recurrent pain may contribute to development of maladaptive cognitions and behavior that worsen daily functioning, increase psychiatric distress, or prolong the experience of pain.[5] Individuals suffering from chronic pain tend to show increased vulnerability to a variety of psychiatric conditions, including depressive disorders,[6] anxiety disorders,[7] and posttraumatic stress disorder.[7] However, the relationship between depression and pain is likely bidirectional, as the presence of a major depressive disorder has been identified as a key risk factor in the transition from acute pain to chronic pain.[8] Additionally, individuals with pain may suffer from significant anxiety and depressive symptomatology that does not reach the severity of a clinical diagnosis.[9] Further, chronic pain negatively impacts quality of life[10] and contributes to higher levels of disability.[10] Individuals with chronic pain are also vulnerable to higher rates of obesity,[11] sleep disturbance,[12] and fatigue,[13] show greater rates of medical utilization,[10] and are vulnerable to problematic pain medication use.[14] Given the negative psychological consequences of chronic pain, it is worthwhile to consider three psychological mechanisms related to pain-related distress that have proven to be suitable targets for intervention: pain catastrophizing, fear of pain, and pain acceptance.
Pain catastrophizing is defined as a negative cognitive and affective mental set related to expected or actual pain experience.[15] Pain catastrophizing is characterized by magnification of the negative effects of pain, rumination about pain, and feelings of helplessness in coping with pain.[16] Pain catastrophizing has been associated with various forms of dysfunction, including increased rates of depression[17] and anxiety,[16] greater functional impairment and disability due to pain,[17] and lower overall quality of life.[18] Individuals who catastrophize about their pain report lower levels of perceived control over pain,[19] poorer emotional and social functioning,[20] and poorer responses to medical intervention.[21] Pain catastrophizing also contributes to poorer pain coping and overall functioning, making pain catastrophizing a viable target for psychological intervention. Addressing catastrophic thoughts about pain improves physical and psychological functioning in the short term[22] and improves the likelihood of returning to work despite the presence of persistent pain.[23]
Pain-related fear is another psychological mechanism that has significant implications for physical and psychological functioning in chronic pain. Pain-related fear reflects a fear of injury or worsening of one�s physical condition through activities that may trigger pain.[24] Pain-related fear is associated with increased pain intensity[25] and increased disability.[26] Pain-related fear contributes to disability by fostering passive or avoidant pain-coping behaviors that contribute to physical deconditioning and pain.[27] If left unaddressed, fear of pain can impair gains in physical rehabilitation settings.[28] Evidence suggests that pain catastrophizing precedes pain-related fear,[24] but both of these mechanisms uniquely contribute to pain and physical disability.[5,29]
Recently, there has been increased attention to the psychological flexibility model, which extends the fear-avoidance model of chronic pain and proposes to improve treatment outcomes through fostering of accepting attitudes towards pain.[30] Psychological flexibility has been defined as an ability to engage in the present moment in a way that allows the individual to either maintain or adjust his or her behavior in the way that is most consistent with internally held goals and values;[31] this idea is especially important in times of greater pain, given the narrowing of focus that is common during times of pain.[32] Similar to psychological acceptance, which fosters a nonjudgmental approach to distressing thoughts and emotions, pain acceptance is defined as a process of nonjudgmentally acknowledging pain, stopping maladaptive attempts to control pain, and learning to live a richer life in spite of pain.[33] Pain acceptance influences emotional functioning through two distinct mechanisms: a willingness to experience pain, which buffers against negative emotional reactions to pain, and continued engagement in valued activities despite the presence of pain, which bolsters positive emotions.[34] Acceptance of pain is theorized to uncouple the occurrence of catastrophic thoughts about pain from subsequent emotional suffering[35] and reduces reliance on control- or avoidance-based coping,[36] thereby freeing cognitive and emotional resources for more meaningful pursuits.[33] Pain acceptance has demonstrated positive associations with cognitive, emotional, social, and occupational functioning in chronic pain populations.[36] Acceptance of pain predicts lower levels of pain catastrophizing[37] and greater levels of positive affect, which in turn reduce the association between pain intensity and negative emotions.[38] Pain acceptance is a particularly salient target for intervention in mindfulness- and acceptance-based therapies for chronic pain, which will be discussed later (see Table 1).
Table 1: Descriptions of psychological therapies for pain.
Psychological Intervention as an Approach to Pain Management
Operant Behavioral Approaches
Fordyce[39] proposed a behavioral model of pain adaptation in which maladaptive behavioral responses to pain develop through contingent relief from pain or pain-related fear. According to this theory, a behavioral drive to avoid pain leads individuals to avoid behaviors that are painful but maintain their physical and emotional health; this avoidance contributes to the development and maintenance of pain chronicity, deconditioning, and depression.[40] Operant therapy for chronic pain utilizes reinforcement and punishment contingencies to reduce pain-related behaviors and foster more adaptive behaviors, including graded patterns of activity, activity pacing, and time-contingent medication management.[40] Behavioral therapy for pain has shown positive effects on a variety of domains, including pain experience, mood, negative cognitive appraisals, and functioning in social roles.[3]
A recent application of learning theory to chronic pain involves in vivo exposure treatment for pain-related fear, which focuses on decreasing the perceived harmfulness of physical activity.[41] Learning theory posits that the aversive signal of pain may be passed to neutral stimuli (like physical movement behaviors), which contributes to avoidant behavior. In vivo exposure therapy extinguishes threat, fear, and behavioral avoidance through progressively increasing engagement in painful behaviors in the absence of catastrophic outcomes; when these behaviors are performed without serious negative consequences, patients may realize that their expectations about the consequences of physical movement and pain are unrealistic.[24,42] Consistent with exposure treatments for phobias and other anxiety disorders, in vivo exposure treatment for fear of pain involves development of a personalized, graded hierarchy of activities that elicit a fearful response, psychoeducation related to pain, fear, and behavior, and ultimately slow and systematic exposure to activities related to the individual�s fear hierarchy.[41] In vivo exposure treatment for pain-related fear has demonstrated efficacy in improving pain, pain catastrophizing, and functional disability,[41] and in decreasing pain-related fear and anxiety, depression, and anxiety.[43] Exclusively behavioral approaches to pain have been less prevalent in recent years but have demonstrated efficacy in lower back pain samples, among others (see Table 2). The effects of in vivo exposure on functional disability appear to be mediated by decreased catastrophizing and perceived harmfulness of activity[41] but may be differentially effective for patients of differing baseline levels of functionality.[40]
Table 2: Demonstrated efficacy of psychological interventions by pain population.
Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) adopts a biopsychosocial approach to the treatment of chronic pain by targeting maladaptive behavioral and cognitive responses to pain and social and environmental contingencies that modify reactions to pain.[44] CBT principles have demonstrated efficacy for a variety of psychiatric disorders and physical illnesses, in addition to pain.[45] CBT for pain develops coping skills intended to manage pain and improve psychological functioning, including structured relaxation, behavioral activation and scheduling of pleasurable events, assertive communication, and pacing of behavior in order to avoid prolongation or exacerbation of pain flares. Unlike operant-behavioral approaches, CBT for pain also addresses maladaptive beliefs about pain and pain catastrophizing through formal use of cognitive restructuring: identification and replacement of unrealistic or unhelpful thoughts about pain with thoughts that are oriented towards adaptive behavior and positive functioning.[44] CBT for pain has been widely implemented as a standard treatment for pain and constitutes the current �gold standard� for psychological intervention for pain.[44]
According to recent meta-analytic studies,[45] CBT for pain demonstrates small-to-medium effect sizes in a variety of domains and shows effects on pain and functioning comparable to standard medical care for pain.[3] CBT significantly improves disability and pain catastrophizing after treatment and yields longer-term improvements in disability, above and beyond the effects of usual medical care,[3] as well as smaller effects on pain, catastrophizing, and mood when compared to no treatment.[3] CBT-related changes in helplessness and catastrophizing are uniquely predictive of later changes in pain intensity and pain-related interference in daily functioning.[22] CBT is also a valuable adjunct treatment in physical rehabilitation programs.[46] The benefits of CBT for pain have been noted in many chronic pain populations (see Table 2) but may not be as robust in some populations, including fibromyalgia.[47] Further, some have suggested that the effects of CBT are at best moderately sized and not maintained long-term.[30] The intractable nature of chronic pain may make adaptation difficult as attempts to control pain may prove ineffectual, ultimately contributing to greater psychological distress.[36] Recent efforts have thus expanded the cognitive-behavioral model of pain intervention to address these issues, which has yielded two newer treatment modalities: mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) and acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT). Unlike CBT, these approaches focus on fostering acceptance of chronic pain rather than emphasizing strategies for controlling pain, thereby improving emotional well-being and greater engagement in nonpain-related pursuits. Though these interventions both target acceptance of pain, they differ in their therapeutic implementation and approach to meditation and daily practice.
Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction
Mindfulness-based interventions approach seeks to uncouple the sensory aspects of pain from the evaluative and emotional aspects of pain,[48] and promote detached awareness of the somatic and psychological sensations within the body.[48] As the chronic pain signal often cannot be extinguished, this detachment may enhance individual responses to chronic pain.[48] Through mindful awareness and meditation, thoughts about pain can be viewed as discrete events rather than an indication of an underlying problem that necessitates immediate and possibly maladaptive responses.[49] An individual may then recognize these sensations or thoughts as something familiar, which may serve to ameliorate emotional or maladaptive behavioral responses to pain.
MBSR is a form of meditation developed in Eastern philosophy and later adapted to Western intervention that enhances awareness and acceptance of physical, cognitive, and emotional states and disconnects psychological reactions from the uncontrollable experience of pain flares.[44] MBSR interventions have traditionally been structured as 2-hour sessions occurring weekly over 10 weeks that develop awareness of the body and proprioceptive signals, awareness of the breath and physical sensations, and development of mindful activities (such as eating, walking, and standing).[48] MBSR promotes mindfulness through daily meditation, which is a requisite component of the treatment.[50] The mechanisms underlying effective MBSR intervention may be similar to desensitization to pain, as meditations involve motionless sitting practices that expose participants to painful sensations in the absence of catastrophic consequences.[48,50] In this way, MBSR interventions may function similarly to in vivo exposure for pain but serve the additional purpose of increasing tolerance for negative emotions, thereby fostering more adaptive responses to pain.[50] MBSR also reduces rumination[51] and interoception of distressing physical signals[52] and increases mindful awareness[51] and acceptance of pain.[53] MBSR necessitates cultivation of daily mindfulness practices,[48] yet compliance rates of MBSR have been found to compare favorably to behavioral pain management techniques.[54] However, evidence on the importance of daily practice is mixed; the amount of time devoted to these mindful activities correlates with symptom improvement in some studies,[55] yet compliance rates appear to correlate only modestly with improvement in others.[54] Unlike CBT, which identifies thoughts as distorted and in need of change, practitioners of mindfulness adopt a nonjudgmental approach to thoughts as �discrete events� that encourage emotional distance from thoughts.[44,50] Further, CBT is a goal-oriented treatment modality, targeting an increased relaxation response or an altered behavioral or thought response, whereas mindfulness does not prescribe specific goals, relying instead on nonjudgmental observation.[50] Further, mindfulness instructors are expected to engage in their own daily mindfulness practices, whereas CBT practitioners do not necessarily need daily practice in CBT to teach it effectively.[50]
MBSR has demonstrated efficacy in addressing the severity of medical symptoms and psychological symptoms,[48] pain intensity,[56] and coping with stress and pain;[54] these treatment gains may last up to 4 years after intervention in many domains.[54] MBSR has been effective in diverse pain samples,[48,54,56] and in individuals with irritable bowel syndrome,[52] neck pain,[57] migraine,[57] fibromyalgia,[58] and chronic musculoskeletal pain.[59] Additionally, MBSR addresses co-occurring symptoms of depression in individuals with some chronic pain conditions like fibromyalgia[60] and enhances the effects of multidisciplinary treatment on disability, anxiety, depression, and catastrophizing.[61] Meta-analytic studies of MBSR in chronic pain have shown small to moderate effects of MBSR on anxiety, depression, and psychological distress in patients with chronic illnesses including pain,[62] and these benefits tend to be robust across studies.[63] However, as with CBT, MBSR may be differentially effective across populations; a recent longitudinal study noted greater improvements in pain, health-related quality of life, and psychological well-being for back or neck pain than in fibromyalgia, chronic migraine, or headache.[57]
Acceptance and Commitment Therapy
ACT adopts a theoretical approach that thoughts do not need to be targeted or changed; instead, responses to thoughts may be altered so that their negative consequences are minimized.[31] ACT interventions improve well-being through nonjudgmental and purposeful acknowledgment of mental events (ie, thoughts and emotions), fostering acceptance of these events, and increasing the ability of the individual to remain present and aware of personally relevant psychological and environmental factors; in doing so, individuals are able to adjust their behavior in a way that is consistent with their goals or values, rather than focusing on immediate relief from thoughts and emotions.[31] In the treatment of pain, ACT fosters purposeful awareness and acceptance of pain, thereby minimizing the focus on reducing pain or thought content and instead directing efforts towards fulfilling behavioral functioning.[44] ACT shares conceptual similarity with MBSR due to shared goals of promoting mindfulness and acceptance of pain but, unlike MBSR, ACT does not utilize daily mindful meditation and instead focuses on identification of the values and goals of the individual, which serve to direct behavior.[64] ACT-based interventions have demonstrated benefits on various aspects of mental health in chronic pain populations, including mental health quality of life, self-efficacy, depression, and anxiety.[65] Some studies of ACT interventions for chronic pain have reported medium or larger effect sizes for improvements in pain-related anxiety and distress, disability, number of medical visits, current work status, and physical performance,[66,67] with smaller effects of this intervention noted on pain and depression.[64] However, meta-analytic studies of acceptance-based therapies for pain have revealed that ACT does not show incrementally greater efficacy in comparison to other established psychological treatments for chronic pain.[64]
Future Directions and Remaining Questions
The extant literature suggests that each of the previously reviewed psychological interventions has retained value for the treatment of chronic pain. At present, there is little evidence of the superiority of any treatment approach, with one exception: CBT has demonstrated incrementally greater benefit in many areas than the effects of behavioral therapy.[3] As previously noted, however, operant-behavioral principles have been adopted for newer treatment approaches like in vivo exposure for fear of pain, which has demonstrated good benefit in multidisciplinary treatment with some pain populations.[41] Recent reviews have concluded that MBSR and ACT are promising but yield generally comparable effects to CBT, despite their distinct intervention methods.[64] The ability to draw conclusions regarding treatment superiority is further limited by the smaller number of high-quality studies of ACT or MBSR compared to the more robust CBT literature.[64]
Some critical questions remain regarding the comparative effectiveness of these interventions. First, the effects of CBT are significant in the short term but are not consistently maintained across time, possibly due to decreased adherence.[3] It is conceivable that acceptance-based approaches, which are predicated less on mechanistic coping strategies and instead foster accepting attitudes towards pain, may show greater rates of long-term adherence and longer-term benefits than CBT, though future study of this question is needed. Further, some pain disorders (such as fibromyalgia) have shown comparatively poorer treatment response to CBT than other pain disorders in some studies, which highlights the possible benefit of alternative interventions in such populations. Indeed, ACT and MBSR have also shown efficacy in fibromyalgia populations, though there remains a need to identify predictors of differential treatment response.[65]
Safety and Tolerability of Psychological Therapies
Psychological therapies for pain are presumed to be at low risk for adverse effects to the recipient; as a result, there is a dearth of empirical evidence regarding the risks of psychological interventions.[68] Some have suggested that patients who enter psychological treatment face risks of incorrect psychological diagnosis, psychological dependence, undermining of a patient�s ability to make their own decisions, or manipulation by the therapist to achieve nontherapeutic goals.[69,70] However, these concerns are alleviated through proper clinical and ethical training of practitioners and are not typically considered salient risks of psychological therapies when they are properly administered.[70] Recently, there has been a call for additional research to address the possibility of adverse psychotherapeutic effects[71] as well as a more systematic method of monitoring and identifying adverse events related to psychotherapy.[68] Though the rates of adverse effects of psychotherapy are still largely unknown, it is encouraging that recent studies have begun to specifically report the incidence of adverse events directly.[72]
Factors Affecting the Outcomes of Psychological Intervention
Practitioners should be cautioned against the assumption of homogeneity among patients with pain disorders, as a variety of factors may predict treatment response.[69,71] Turk[73] proposed that individuals coping with comparable levels of pain show distinct patterns of response that could be clustered into recognizable subclasses: �dysfunctional� patients, who report high levels of pain-related interference and distress; �interpersonally distressed� patients, who report lacking the support of loved ones in coping with their pain; and �adaptive copers,� who report notably higher levels of function and perceived social support and lower levels of pain-related dysfunction. Turk proposed that these patient subgroups respond differently to psychological intervention, and subsequent findings have supported this idea: �dysfunctional� patients have demonstrated greater response to interdisciplinary treatment involving psychological care than �interpersonally distressed� patients.[74] Identification of patient subgroups may be accomplished using instruments like the Multidisciplinary Pain Inventory[75] and through detailed assessment of chronic pain intensity and disability.[76] Additionally, patients� readiness to adopt a self-management approach to their own chronic pain appears to have significant implications for treatment response;[77] patients who are in the precontemplation stage of treatment readiness may benefit more from insight-focused therapy, versus those in an action stage, who may benefit more from establishing relaxation-based and other active coping strategies.[77] Patient readiness to self-manage pain may be assessed using the Pain Stages of Change Questionnaire.[77] Additionally, treatment response may be subject to patient beliefs about the importance of intervention-specific behaviors and about one�s own ability to perform these actions.[78]
Additionally, there may be demographic, psychological, and medical differences among patients that are relevant to treatment response, including the etiology of pain conditions, socioeconomic status, and cultural and ethnic background; these factors require further empirical research in order to optimize clinical outcomes but have not yet received adequate attention in the clinical literature.[79] For example, baseline levels of physical functioning appear to predict response to certain psychological treatment modalities like in vivo exposure for fear of pain.[40] Further, baseline levels of pain, depression, and anxiety have been found to predict dropout rates in some samples,[80,81] though these effects are not apparent in all samples.[3] In addition to being an important mechanism of treatment, there is evidence that baseline levels of fear of pain may also predict differential treatment response; individuals more fearful of pain at the outset of a multidisciplinary pain treatment program showed greater responsiveness to in vivo exposure for this problem.[28] The presence of medical comorbidities that are likely to impact future functioning is also important to consider; recently, psychological interventions have been developed that address comorbid symptoms of sleep,[82] obesity,[29] and fatigue[83] that may accompany chronic pain. Hybrid treatments may be more important in independent clinical practice, where comorbidity is more common.[82] Notably, there is little evidence that personality variables factor significantly into treatment response; most of the connections between personality traits and variables relevant to psychological intervention for pain are theoretical and have not consistently emerged in empirical research.[84,85]
Patient age is also an important consideration in examining responses to interventions for pain. Older adults have increased risks of various ailments related to pain, including arthritis and osteoporosis, but may have poor tolerance to medications for these conditions.[86] Further, age may alter psychological reactions to pain; the emotional aspects of pain are more strongly correlated with pain catastrophizing in younger adults than older adults while sensory aspects of pain appear more strongly related to pain catastrophizing in older adults.[87] Additionally, treatment protocols may require accommodation for elderly populations; addressing an elderly patient�s fear of movement may be complicated by a fear of falling that is absent in younger populations.[88] As memory concerns are more common in older adulthood, treatment protocols may be improved if they minimize the demand for memorized tasks.[89] Unfortunately, research is lacking for specific psychological interventions in elderly populations.[86] In general, psychological interventions are presumed to be of low risk for older adults,[90] and CBT for pain has received comparatively greater empirical support for older adults.[88] Overall, the efficacy of psychological intervention for pain in older adults is an area that warrants additional study in the future.
Treatment availability is a key consideration for psychological intervention, especially for patients in poverty or living in remote geographical locations. Though it is beyond the scope of this paper to review ethnic and socioeconomic contributors to health, low socioeconomic status is a significant risk factor for the development of chronic pain and factors heavily into racial disparities in health outcomes.[91] As financial challenges may restrict access to traditional psychological interventions, the importance of alternative modalities for provision of mental health interventions for chronic pain is paramount. Teleinterventions[92] and Internet-based interventions[93] may be viable for psychological treatment of chronic pain; Internet-based programs delivering ACT,[94] CBT,[46] and mindfulness interventions[95] have demonstrated benefits in psychosocial functioning, mood, and pain coping. However, methodologically rigorous clinical trials and evidence for maximally effective and efficient implementation of these programs are needed, as many interventions have shown modest effects and comparatively high dropout rates.[96]
Combining psychological treatment modalities with one another and with other medical interventions may constitute the next logical step in enhancing treatment outcomes. Institution of a flexible, goal-oriented approach, akin to ACT, may enhance engagement and adherence in CBT.[97] Additionally, a combination of graded in vivo exposure and ACT may show incremental benefit in addressing pain-related fear and anxiety.[98] Effects of CBT may also be enhanced in conjunction with treatments like biofeedback[99] and hypnosis.[100] A word of caution: presentation of psychological treatment by nontraditional practitioners may show variable effectiveness unless treatment approaches are adjusted appropriately.[101] If trained properly, however, appropriately-designed cognitive-behavioral interventions can be effectively administered by physiotherapists,[102] physical therapists,[103] nurses, and occupational therapists.[104]
Conclusion
Psychotherapy constitutes a valuable modality for addressing the behavioral, cognitive, emotional, and social factors that both result from and contribute to pain-related dysfunction and distress through enhancement of self-management strategies. There are several distinct psychological interventions that differ in their theoretical approaches, therapeutic targets, and areas of efficacy, but CBT, ACT, MBSR, and operant behavioral approaches to pain may all play important roles for enhancing the self-management abilities of individuals with chronic pain. However, there remains a need to identify predictors of differential treatment response and salient patient subgroups to optimize treatment outcomes, as well as additional and alternative means to provision of psychological services for those who are unwilling or unable to engage in traditional psychotherapy. More empirical research into contributing factors of differential treatment response and the dissemination of psychological treatment for pain may result in significant savings to the physical, emotional, and financial costs of chronic pain.
Footnotes
Disclosure:�The author reports no conflicts of interest in this work.
In conclusion, psychological therapies, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness-based stress reduction and even chiropractic care, have been demonstrated to effective help treat chronic pain, according to research studies. The connection between the mind and body has previously been referenced as a cause for a variety of health issues, including chronic pain. Finally, the article above demonstrated the effects of psychological therapy for chronic pain management. Information referenced from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic as well as to spinal injuries and conditions. To discuss the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 .
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez
Additional Topics: Back Pain
According to statistics, approximately 80% of people will experience symptoms of back pain at least once throughout their lifetimes. Back pain is a common complaint which can result due to a variety of injuries and/or conditions. Often times, the natural degeneration of the spine with age can cause back pain. Herniated discs occur when the soft, gel-like center of an intervertebral disc pushes through a tear in its surrounding, outer ring of cartilage, compressing and irritating the nerve roots. Disc herniations most commonly occur along the lower back, or lumbar spine, but they may also occur along the cervical spine, or neck. The impingement of the nerves found in the low back due to injury and/or an aggravated condition can lead to symptoms of sciatica.
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Cost Effectiveness: There are tons of reasons why a person would answer “yes.” From overall general health to specific aches and pains, to an injury, millions of folks turn to chiropractors for pain relief, increased movement and strength, and overall healing.
For some individuals, the price tag seems to hinder their decision to seek chiropractic treatment. Lack of insurance coverage, or a recommended ongoing treatment regimen (because it usually takes more than one treatment) are two of the most common reasons patients deem it too expensive.
When looking at the big picture, however, patients see and understand the cost of NOT pursuing the care of a chiropractor, and these costs end up being more than simply dollars.
Let’s look at three reasons an individual would visit a chiropractor, and the cost effective savings each scenario provides.
The Cost Effectiveness Of Chiropractic Treatment
An Ounce Of Prevention Is Worth A Pound Of Cure.
Choosing to see a chiropractor to promote and sustain good health is a forward thinking idea that is increasingly attractive to those striving to stay younger, longer. Chiropractic care promotes healing through the body as a whole.
Spinal adjustments and joint manipulations help increase mobility and maximize the entire body’s performance. In addition, they offer a wide variety of health benefits, from decreasing blood pressure to lowering the chance of headaches. Avoiding these health issues potentially save tens of thousands of dollars in future doctor bills!
Regular visits to a professional chiropractor enable a person to stay healthy and enjoy a more active life with a healthy back, bones, and joints.
Oops! I Strained It Again!
Millions of unfortunate souls injure their bodies in a variety of mishaps. From sports injuries to car accidents, to erroneously thinking you really can walk in those four inch heels, our backs, ankles, and hips take a beating.
Choosing chiropractic care for an injury is a smart decision. In many cases, a chiropractor is able to promote healing, decrease a patient’s dependence on drugs for pain management, and minimize the chance of a recurrence.
Chiropractic care treats the body as a whole, so a patient’s visits help strengthen other parts of the surrounding area of the body, not just the injured area. The cost effectiveness of chiropractic care for treating injuries, decreases the money spent on costly medicine and reduces time off work. It also helps people stay married, because most individuals are hateful when they are in pain. (Ok, we made that last point up).
Chronic Medical Conditions.
Many types of medical conditions are ongoing, with no definitive cure. These can be devastating to a person’s quality of life. Daily pain, and loss of strength and mobility are difficult to manage, and sometimes medicine is the chosen option. Numerous times, chiropractic care can work wonders in these situations.
A chiropractor who is experienced in treating the specific type of medical condition can build a treatment plan to help manage the symptoms of the condition, including drug-free pain management. With adjustments to the afflicted area, along with an at-home routine of recommended exercise, the patient frequently experiences a reduction in pain and symptoms, and an increase in mobility. In the best situation, his or her quality of life is positively affected, and relapses are avoided.
Chiropractic care is a productive treatment for a variety of injuries and medical conditions, as well as a preventive therapy to maintain and prolong wellness. The up front cost is paltry when measured against the rewards of increased mobility, decreased pain, and a greater quality of life.
Back Pain Treatment: Louie Martinez is a business owner in El Paso, TX. After experiencing a variety of injuries which affected his ability to perform his everyday activities, Mr. Martinez chose Dr. Alex Jimenez to treat his pain. Dr. Alex Jimenez restored Louie Martinez back to his original state of health and wellness. After receiving care for over 10 years, Mr. Martinez gained his range of motion and mobility through Dr. Alex Jimenez’s thorough chiropractic care.
Back pain can affect any area of the back, including neck pain (cervical), middle back pain (thoracic), lower back pain (lumbar) or coccydynia (tailbone or sacral pain) dependent on the segment affected. The lumbar region of the back is the most common place for pain, as it supports the majority of the body’s weight. Episodes of back pain can be intense, sub-acute, or chronic depending on the duration. The pain might be characterized as a dull ache, piercing or shooting pain, or a burning sensation. Pain can radiate into the arms and hands as well as the legs or feet, and may include tingling, or weakness in the arms and legs.
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There was a time when Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, or ADHD, was laughed off as �kids being kids.� Research has shown, however, that ADHD is a neuro behavioral disorder that is often diagnosed in children. In fact, 1 in 10 children receives a diagnosis of ADHD and experts are taking notice of the condition�s impact in learning and even daily living.
ADHD Drugs – Dangerous Game
Traditional treatments for ADHD are often heavily dependent upon medication, particularly stimulants like Ritalin. This drug has long been the standard for treating children diagnosed with ADHD and it, along with other similar drugs, have been shown to be somewhat effective in treating the symptoms of the condition in many patients. Unfortunately, that is not all that these drugs do.
Several of the drugs marketed specifically for ADHD are schedule II controlled substances and act very similar to amphetamines. Drugs including Ritalin have effects that closely mimic those of cocaine. Several of these drugs have been linked to cardiovascular problems in children and teens. Many of them are highly addictive.
Drugs like Adderall have become street drugs abused by teens and college students who enjoy its �speed� effects or who use it to stay awake so they can study. Some young women are abusing the drug by taking it as a diet aid.
Aside from all of this, though, are the effects a child�s brain and body undergo when they take the medication as prescribed. There is usually a distinct behavioral and personality change which often presents as a �dulling� or �stoned� reaction.
There are also great concerns that too little is known about the long term effects of taking ADHD drugs. It is a dangerous game to play with a child�s life.
Studies & Research
Several studies have been conducted to determine the effectiveness of chiropractic treatments as a viable therapy for ADHD. A study published in the Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics in 1989 was one of the early studies to explore this. The conclusion of the study was �impressive evidence� that the majority of the subjects did improve while using specific chiropractic care.
It also called for more studies to be conducted to further explore the possibilities that chiropractic care offers. Another study published in Explore (NY) in 2010 also provided strong evidence that chiropractic spinal manipulation has significant benefits for patients with ADHD.
Chiropractic For ADHD
Chiropractic is steadily gaining ground as a viable, effective, non-drug treatment for ADHD patients. Doctors of Chiropractic are teaming up with chiropractic neurologists to help move children away from the drugs. As they create chiropractic based ADHD treatments they not only free children from the unpleasant side effects of the medication, they also introduce them to a healthier lifestyle.
The patient is put through a variety of tests including a brain function exam. Their auditory and visual reflexes are tested as well as other assessments to determine not only the problem, but the specific manifestations of the problem as they relate to the patient. This results in a very individualized treatment plan that is tailored specifically to the patient�s needs, unlike �one size fits all� approach of drug therapy.
Through these individualized programs, data on the patient�s progress is constantly being gathered and compiled by the chiropractic neurologist. Often, children who go through such programs not only experience a significant grade improvement in the first three months, they also experience improvement in their academic performance even after the program is complete.
Improvements in patients who use drug therapy only experience the improvements as long as they are taking the drugs. Chiropractic neurology changes the brain function of the patient so that they enjoy its effects and benefits for life.
If you or a loved one is suffering from this condition, give us a call. Our Doctor of Chiropractic is here to help!
If you’ve experienced a headache, you’re not alone. Approximately 9 out of 10 individuals in the United States suffer from headaches. While some are intermittent, some frequent, some are dull and throbbing, and some cause debilitating pain and nausea, getting rid of the head pain is an immediate response for many. But, how can you most effectively relieve a headache?
Research studies have demonstrated that chiropractic care is an effective alternative treatment option for many types of headaches. A 2014 report in the Journal of Manipulative and Physiological Therapeutics (JMPT) discovered that spinal adjustments and manual manipulations used in chiropractic care improved outcome measures for the treatment of chronic and acute neck pain as well as improved the benefits of a variety of treatment approaches for neck pain. Furthermore, a 2011 JMPT study found that chiropractic care can improve and reduce the frequency of migraine and cervicogenic headaches.
How Does Chiropractic Care Treat Headaches?
Chiropractic care focuses on the treatment of a variety of injuries and/or conditions of the musculoskeletal and nervous system, including headache. A chiropractor utilizes spinal adjustments and manual manipulations to carefully correct the alignment of the spine. A subluxation, or a spinal misalignment, has been demonstrated to cause symptoms, such as neck and back pain, and headache and migraine. A balanced spine can improve spine function as well as alleviate structural stress. In addition, a doctor of chiropractic can help treat headaches and other painful symptoms by supplying nutritional advice, offering posture and ergonomics advice and recommending stress management and exercise advice. Chiropractic care can ultimately ease muscle tension along the surrounding structures of the spine, restoring the spine’s original function.
Furthermore, chiropractic care can safely and effectively treat other spinal health issues, including symptoms of neck and lower back pain due to cervical and lumbar herniated discs, among other injuries and/or conditions. A chiropractor understands how a spinal misalignment, or subluxation, can affect different areas of the body and they will treat the body as a whole rather than focusing on the symptom alone. Chiropractic treatment can help the human body naturally restore its original health and wellness.
It is well-known that chiropractic care is effective for a variety of injuries and/or conditions, however, over the last few years, research studies have found that chiropractic can enhance our well-being by managing our stress. A number of these recent research studies demonstrated that chiropractic care can alter immune function, affect heart rate, and also reduce blood pressure. A 2011 research from Japan indicated that chiropractic may have a much bigger influence on your body than you believe.
Stress is an essential indicator of health, and chronic pain symptoms can tremendously affect wellness. Researchers in Japan sought to check whether chiropractic could alter stress levels in 12 men and women with neck pain and headache. But scientists at Japan wanted to find a more objective picture of how chiropractic spinal adjustments and manual manipulations affect the nervous system, so they used PET scans to monitor brain activity and salvia trials to monitor hormone changes.
After chiropractic care, patients had altered brain activity in the areas of the brain responsible for pain processing and stress reactions. They also had significantly reduced cortisol levels, indicating decreased stress. Participants also reported lower pain scores and a greater quality of life after treatment. Mindfulness interventions, such as chiropractic care, are fundamental stress management methods and techniques. Chronic stress can lead to a variety of health issues, including neck and back pain as well as headache and migraine. Other mindfulness interventions can also safely and effectively help improve symptoms. The purpose of the following article is to demonstrate the effectiveness of another mindfulness intervention, known as mindfulness-based stress reduction, on perceived pain intensity and quality of life in patients previously diagnosed with chronic headache.
The Effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction on Perceived Pain Intensity and Quality of Life in Patients With Chronic Headache
Abstract
The aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of Mindfulness-Based Stress reduction (MBSR) on perceived pain intensity and quality of life in patients with chronic headache. Thus, forty patients based on the diagnosis of a neurologist and diagnostic criteria of the International Headache Society (IHS) for migraine and chronic tension-type headache were selected and randomly assigned to the intervention group and control group, respectively. The participants completed the Pain and quality of life (SF-36) questionnaire. The intervention group enrolled in an eight-week MBSR program that incorporated meditation and daily home practice, per week, session of 90-minutes. Results of covariance analysis with the elimination of the pre-test showed significantly improvement of pain and quality of life in the intervention group compared with the control group. The findings from this study revealed that MBSR can be used non-pharmacological intervention for improvement the quality of life and development of strategies to cope with pain in patients with chronic headache. And can be used in combination with other therapies such as pharmacotherapy.
Keywords:chronic pain, migraine headache, mindfulness, quality of life, tension headache
Dr. Alex Jimenez’s Insight
Chronic headache is a debilitating symptoms which affects many people. There are many different types of headaches, however, a majority of them often share a common trigger. Chronic stress can cause a variety of health issues of not properly managed, including muscle tension, which may lead to spinal misalignment, or subluxation, as well as other symptoms, such as neck and back pain, headaches and migraines. Stress management methods and techniques can ultimately help improve and manage stress associated symptoms. Mindfulness interventions like chiropractic care and mindfulness-based stress reduction have been determined to effectively help reduce stress and alleviate chronic headache symptoms.
Introduction
Headache is one of the most common complaints investigated in adult and pediatric neurological clinics. The vast majority of these headaches are migraine and tension-type headaches (Kurt & Kaplan, 2008). Headaches are classified into two categories of main or primary and secondary headaches. Ninety percent of headaches are primary headaches, among which migraine and tension headaches are the most common types (International Headache Society [IHS], 2013). According to the definition, migraine headache is usually unilateral and pulsating in nature and lasts from 4 to 72 hours. The associated symptoms include nausea, vomiting, increased sensitivity to light, sound and pain, and it generally increases with increasing physical activity. Also, tension headache is characterized by bilateral, non-pulsating pain, pressure or tightness, blunt pain, like a bandage or a hat, and a continuum of mild to moderate pain, preventing daily life activities (IHS, 2013).
Stovner et al. (2007) using the IHS diagnostic criteria, estimated the percentages of the adult population with an active headache disorder about 46% for headache in general, 42% for tension-type headache. This suggests that the incidence and the prevalence of tension-type headache are much higher than it was predicted. It is estimated that about 12 to 18 percent of the people have migraines (Stovner & Andree, 2010). Women are more likely to experience migraines compared to men, migraine prevalence is about 6% for men and 18% for women (Tozer et al., 2006).
Migraine and tension-type headaches are common and well-documented responses to psychological and physiological stressors (Menken, Munsat, & Toole, 2000). Migraine is a periodic and debilitating chronic pain and has a negative impact on quality of life, relationships and productivity. The World Health Organization (WHO) has announced the severe migraine as one of the most debilitating diseases with the nineteenth rank (IHS, 2013; Menken et al., 2000).
Despite the development of many medications for treatment and prevention of migraine attacks, a number of patients find them ineffective and some other find them inappropriate because of their side effects and side-effects often times lead to early discontinuation of treatment. As a result, a great interest in the development of non-pharmacologic treatments can be observed (Mulleners, Haan, Dekker, & Ferrari, 2010).
Biological factors alone cannot explain vulnerability to the experience of the headache, the onset of the attack and its course, intensified attacks of headache, headache-related disability and also the quality of life in patients with chronic headache. Negative life events are (as psychosocial factor) often known as a key factor in the development and exacerbation of headache (Nash & Thebarge, 2006).
The program of Mindfulness-Based Stress reduction (MBSR) is among the treatments, which have been studied in the past two decades on a variety of chronic pain. MBSR developed by Kabat-Zinn and used in a wide range of population with stress-related disorders and chronic pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1990). Especially in recent years, many studies have been conducted to examine the therapeutic effects of MBSR. Most studies have shown the significant effects of MBSR on different psychological conditions including the reduction of psychological symptoms of distress, anxiety, rumination, anxiety and depression (Bohlmeijer, Prenger, Taal, & Cuijpers, 2010; Carlson, Speca, Patel, & Goodey, 2003; Grossman, Niemann, Schmidt, & Walach, 2004; Jain et al., 2007; Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn, Lipworth, & Burney, 1985; Kabat-Zinn et al., 1992; Teasdale et al., 2002), pain (Flugel et al., 2010; Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn et al., 1985; La Cour & Petersen, 2015; Rosenzweig et al., 2010; Zeidan, Gordon, Merchant, & Goolkasian, 2010) and quality of life (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Carlson et al., 2003; Flugel et al., 2010; Kabat-Zinn, 1982; La Cour & Petersen, 2015; Morgan, Ransford, Morgan, Driban, & Wang, 2013; Rosenzweig et al., 2010).
Bohlmeijer et al. (2010) conducted a meta-analysis of eight randomized controlled studies on the effects of MBSR program, concluded that MBSR has small effects on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in people with chronic medical diseases. Also Grossman et al. (2004) in a meta-analysis of 20 controlled and uncontrolled studies on the effects of the MBSR program on physical and mental health of medical and non-medical samples, found an effect size of moderate for controlled studies on mental health. No effect sizes for specific symptoms such as depression and anxiety were reported. The most recent review includes 16 studies controlled and uncontrolled, This review reports that MBSR intervention decrease pain intensity, and most controlled trial studies (6 of 8) show higher reductions in pain intensity for intervention group compared with control group (Reiner, Tibi, & Lipsitz, 2013).
In another study, researchers found significant effect sizes for some subscales of quality of life for example vitality scale and bodily pain, nonsignificant effect sizes for pain and significant medium to large size effects for lower general anxiety and depression (La Cour & Petersen, 2015). Also in a study by Rosenzweig et al. (2010) on patients with chronic pain including those suffering from migraine, there were significant differences in pain intensity, pain-related functional limitations between patients. However, those suffering from migraine experienced the lowest improvement in pain and different aspects of quality of life. In general, different groups of chronic pain showed significant improvements in pain intensity and pain-related functional limitations in this study. Two other studies were conducted by Kabat-Zinn and using MBSR methods for treating patients with chronic pain, including a number of patients with chronic headaches. Statistical analysis showed a significant reduction in pain, pain interference with daily activities, medical and psychiatric signs and symptoms, anxiety and depression, negative body image, pain interference with daily activities, use of the drug and also increase in confidence (Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn et al., 1985).
Due to pain and loss of function and reduced work productivity and increased use of health care, chronic headache impose costs on individual and society, it seems that the chronic headache is a major health problem and finding ways to control and treat this problem could be of great importance. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of MBSR in addition to conventional pharmacotherapy in a clinical population sample of patients with chronic headache to show the effectiveness of this technique as a method of pain management and enhancement of the quality of life in patients with chronic headaches.
Methods
Participants and Procedure
This is a randomized controlled trial two- group �pretest-posttest� study design. Also an approval was obtained from the Ethics Committee of Zahedan University of Medical Sciences. The participants selected through convenience sampling method from patients with chronic migraine and tension-type headache, diagnosed by a neurologist and a psychiatrist using IHS diagnostic criteria-referred to university hospitals of Zahedan University of Medical Sciences, Zahedan-Iran.
After evaluating each patient for meeting the inclusion and exclusion criteria and taking an initial interview, 40 out of eighty-seven primary patients with chronic headache were selected and randomly assigned into two equal groups of intervention and control. Both the control and intervention groups received common pharmacotherapy under the supervision of the neurologist. During therapy sessions three subjects, due to the lack of a regular presence or exclusion criteria, opted out or were excluded from the study.
Inclusion Criteria
(1) Informed consent to participate in the sessions.
(2) Minimum age of 18 years.
(3) Minimum educational qualification of middle-school degree.
(4) The diagnosis of chronic headache (primary chronic migraine and tension-type headache) by the neurologist and according to IHS diagnostic criteria.
(5) 15 or more days per month for more than 3 months and least six months history of migraines and tension-type headache
Exclusion Criteria
(1) Subjects who were not willing to continue the participation in the study or leave the study for any reason.
(2) Other chronic pain problems.
(3) Psychosis, delirium and cognitive disorders.
(4) Cases of interpersonal difficulties interfering with teamwork.
(5) Drug and substance abuse.
(6) Mood disorder
Intervention Groups
Therapy sessions (MBSR) were held for 1.5 to 2 hours a week for the members of the intervention group (drug plus MBSR); While no MBSR was performed for the control group (only common drugs used) until the end of the research. The MBSR was carried out for 8 weeks. In this study, the 8-session MBSR program (Chaskalon, 2011) has been used. To do the meditation homework while training participants in sessions, the necessary measures have been provided in a CD and a booklet. If any one of subjects did not participate in a session or sessions, at the beginning of the next session the therapist would provide written notes of the sessions to the subjects, in addition to repeat the previous session summaries. MBSR program and discussions were presented to the patients in the eight sessions including: understanding pain and its aetiology, discuss about relationship stress, anger and emotion with pain, Understanding negative automatic thoughts, identyfying thoughts and feelings, introducing the concept of Acceptance, breathing space, three-minute breathing space, breath focus exercise, pleasant and unpleasant events daily, behavioral activation, mindfulness of routine activity, body scan practice, Seeing and hearing exercise, sitting meditation, mindful walking, reading poems related to mindfulness and also discuss how to keep up what has been developed over the whole course, discuss plans and positive reasons for maintaining the practice. Patients also received information about learning how to detect any future relapses as well as strategies and plans on which to base early detection of symptom pain attacks and for being self-directed towards new situations.
Control Group
Patients who were randomized in the control group were continuing usual pharmacotherapy(including specific and nonspecific drugs) by their neurologist until the end of the research.
Instruments
Two main tools were used in the pre-test and post-test to collect data, in addition to demographic data form. Headache log was used to determine the perceived intensity of pain using three parts: (1) 10-point likert-scale ratings, (2) the number of hours of pain per day and (3) pain frequency during the month. Each part is scored from 0 to 100, the highest level being 100. Since each patient rates their perceived pain intensity in the questionnaire, validity and reliability are not considered. And the other was a short-form 36 questionnaire (SF-36). The questionnaire is applicable in the various age groups and different diseases. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire was approved by Ware et al (Ware, Osinski, Dewey, & Gandek, 2000). The SF-36 assesses the perception of the quality of life in 8 subscales include: physical functioning (PF), role limitations due to physical health (RP), bodily pain (PB), general health (GH), energy and vitality (VT), social functioning (SF), role limitations due to emotional problems (RE) and affect health (AH). The tool has also two summary scales for Physical Component Summary (PCS) and Mental Component Summary (MCS) scores. Each scale is scored from 0 to 100, the highest functional status level being 100. The validity and reliability of the SF-36 were examined in an Iranian population. Internal consistency coefficients were between 0.70 and 0.85 for the 8 subscales and test-retest coefficients were between 0.49 and 0.79 with an interval of one week (Montazeri, Goshtasebi, Vahdaninia, & Gandek, 2005).
Data Analysis
For analyzing the data, in addition to the use of descriptive indicators, to compare the results of the intervention and control groups, the analysis of covariance was used to determine the effectiveness and the removal of the pre-test results at 95% confidence level.
Drop-Out
During therapy sessions three subjects, due to the lack of a regular presence or exclusion criteria, opted out or were excluded from the study. Thirty-seven out of 40 patients completed current study and the gathered data were then analyzed.
Results
Analysis for comparison of demographic distribution between the two groups was performed using chi-square and independent t-test. Demographic data of both groups are shown in Table 1. Distribution of age, educational years, gender and marital status were the same in each group.
Table 1: Demographic characteristics of participants.
Table 2 shows the results of analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Levene�s test was non-significant, F (1, 35) = 2.78, P = 0.105, indicating that the assumption of homogeneity of variance had been approved. This finding shows that the variances across groups are equal and no difference was observed between two groups.
Table 2: The results of covariance analysis for the effectiveness of MBSR on pain intensity.
The main effect of MBSR intervention was significant, F (1, 34) = 30.68, P = 0.001, partial ?2 = 0.47, indicating that the pain intensity was lower after MBSR intervention (Mean = 53.89, SD.E = 2.40) than control group (Mean = 71.94, SD.E = 2.20). The covariate (pre-test of pain) was also significant, F (1, 34) = 73.41, P = 0.001, partial ?2 = 0.68, indicating that level of pain intensity before MBSR intervention had a significant effect on level of pain intensity. In other words, there was a positive relationship in the pain scores between pre-test and post-test. Therefore, the first research hypothesis is confirmed and MBSR treatment on perceived intensity was effective in patients with chronic headache and could reduce the intensity of perceived pain in these patients. All significant values are reported at p<0.05.
The second hypothesis of this study is the effectiveness of MBSR technique on quality of life in patients with chronic headache. To evaluate the effectiveness of MBSR technique on quality of life in patients with chronic headaches and eliminating the confounding variables and the effect of pre-test, for the analysis of data, multivariate covariance analysis (MANCOVA) of the dimensions of quality of life is used that Table 3 shows the results of analysis in the intervention group.
Table 3: The results of covariance analysis for the effectiveness of MBSR on quality of life.
The Table 3 shows the results of analysis of covariance (MANCOVA). The following information is needed to understand the results presented in Table 3.
The box�s test was non- significant, F = 1.08, P = 0.320, indicating that the variance�covariance matrices are the same in two groups and therefore the assumption of homogeneity is met. Also F (10, 16) = 3.153, P = 0.020, Wilks� Lambda = 0.33, partial ?2 = 0.66, indicating was a significant difference between the pre-test of the groups in the dependent variables.
Levene�s test was non-significant in some of dependent variables including [PF: F (1, 35) = 3.19, P = 0.083; RF: F (1, 35) = 1.92, P = 0.174; BP: F (1, 35) = 0.784, P = 0.382; GH: F (1, 35) = 0.659, P = 0.422; PCS: F (1, 35) = 2.371, P = 0.133; VT: F (1, 35) = 4.52, P = 0.141; AH: F (1, 35) = 1.03, P = 0.318], indicating that the assumption of homogeneity of variance had been approved in subscales of quality of life and Levene�s test was significant in some of dependent variables including [RE: F (1, 35) = 4.27, P = 0.046; SF: F (1, 35) = 4.82, P = 0.035; MCS: F (1, 35) = 11.69, P = 0.002], showing that the assumption of homogeneity of variance had been broken in subscales of quality of life.
The main effect of MBSR intervention was significant for some of dependent variables including [RP: F (1, 25) = 5.67, P = 0.025, partial ?2 = 0.18; BP: F (1, 25) = 12.62, P = 0.002, partial ?2 = 0.34; GH: F (1, 25) = 9.44, P = 0.005, partial ?2 = 0.28; PCS: F (1, 25) = 9.80, P = 0.004, partial ?2 = 0.28; VT: F (1, 25) = 12.60, P = 0.002, partial ?2 = 0.34; AH: F (1, 25) = 39.85, P = 0.001, partial ?2 = 0.61; MCS: F (1, 25) = 12.49, P = 0.002, partial ?2 = 0.33], these results indicating that subscales of RP, BP, GH, PCS, VT, AH, and MCS were higher after MBSR intervention [RP: Mean = 61.62, SD.E = 6.18; BP: Mean = 48.97, SD.E = 2.98; GH: Mean = 48.77, SD.E = 2.85; PCS: Mean = 58.52, SD.E = 2.72; VT: Mean = 44.99, SD.E = 2.81; AH: Mean = 52.60, SD.E = 1.97; MCS: Mean = 44.82, SD.E = 2.43] than control group [RP: Mean = 40.24, SD.E = 5.62; BP: Mean = 33.58, SD.E = 2.71; GH: Mean = 36.05, SD.E = 2.59; PCS: Mean = 46.13, SD.E = 2.48; VT: Mean = 30.50, SD.E = 2.56; AH: Mean = 34.49, SD.E = 1.80; MCS: Mean = 32.32, SD.E = 2.21].
Nonetheless, the main effect of MBSR intervention was non-significant for some of dependent variables including [PF: F (1, 25) = 1.05, P = 0.314, partial ?2 = 0.04; RE: F (1, 25) = 1.74, P = 0.199, partial ?2 = 0.06; SF: F (1, 25) = 2.35, P = 0.138, partial ?2 = 0.09]. These results indicating, although the means in these subscales of quality of life were higher [PF: Mean = 75.43, SD.E = 1.54; RE: Mean = 29.65, SD.E = 6.02; SF: Mean = 51.96, SD.E = 2.63] than the control group [PF: Mean = 73.43, SD.E = 1.40; RE: Mean = 18.08, SD.E = 5.48; SF: Mean = 46.09, SD.E = 2.40], But Mean difference was non-significant.
In summary, Covariance analysis (MANCOVA) results in Table 3 indicate a statistically significant difference in the scores of subscales of role limitation due to physical health (RP), bodily pain (BP), general health (GH), energy and vitality (VT), Affect health (AH) and sum of physical health dimensions (PCS) and mental health (MCS). And also indicates that there was not a statistically significant difference in subscale scores of physical functioning (PF), role limitations due to emotional problems (RE) and social functioning (SF) in the intervention group. All significant values are reported at p<0.05.
Discussion
This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of MBSR on perceived pain intensity and quality of life in patients with chronic headache. The results showed that MBSR treatment was significantly effective on reduction of pain intensity perception. The results of current study are consistent with the results of other researchers who had used the same method for chronic pain (e.g. Flugel et al., 2010; Kabat-Zinn, 1982; Kabat-Zinn et al., 1985; La Cour & Petersen, 2015; Reibel, Greeson, Brainard, & Rosenzweig, 2001; Reiner et al., 2013; Rosenzweig et al., 2010; zeidan et al., 2010). For example, in two studies conducted by Kabat-Zinn, where the MBSR program was used for treating patients with chronic pain by physicians, a number of patients with chronic headache were also included. The first study of the two studies, showed a significant reduction in pain, pain interference with daily activities, medical signs and psychiatric disorders, including anxiety and depression (Kabat-Zinn, 1982). The results of second study showed significant reduction in pain, negative body image, anxiety, depression, pain interference with daily activities, medical symptoms, medication use, and also showed an increase in self-confidence (Kabat-Zinn et al., 1985).
Also, the findings of the current study are consistent with the results of Rosenzweig et al. (2010), their results suggest that MBSR program is effective for reduction, physical pain, quality of life and psychological well-being of patients with various chronic pains and mindfulness is effective on emotional and sensory components of pain perception by self-regulation of attention through meditation activities. Although the results of Rosenzweig et al. (2010) showed that among patients with chronic pain the minimal impact on the reduction in bodily pain and improvement in quality of life was related to patients with fibromyalgia, chronic headache. In another study conducted by Flugel et al. (2010), although positive changes were observed in the frequency and the intensity of pain, the pain reduction was not statistically significant.
In another study, pain severity significantly reduced after the intervention in patients with tension headache. In addition, the MBSR group showed higher scores in mindful awareness in comparison with the control group (Omidi & Zargar, 2014). In a pilot study by Wells et al. (2014), their results showed that MBSR with pharmacological treatment was possible for patients with migraines. Although the small sample size of this pilot study did not provide power to detect a significant difference in the pain severity and migraine frequency, results demonstrated this intervention had a beneficial effect on headache duration, disability, self-efficacy.
In explaining the results of the effectiveness of mindfulness based therapies for pain it can be said, psychological models of chronic pain such as fear-avoidance model showed that the ways by which people interpret their feelings of pain and respond to them are important determinants in the experience of pain (Schutze, Rees, Preece, & Schutze, 2010). Pain catastrophizing is significantly associated with fear and anxiety caused by pain, the cognitive paths through which the fear of pain can be caused and also the pain-related disability is associated and also because the negative cognitive assessment of pain explains 7 to 31% of the variance of the pain intensity. Therefore, any mechanism that can reduce pain catastrophizing or make changes in its process can reduce the perception of pain intensity and the disability caused by that. Schutz et al. (2010) argue that the little mindfulness is the primer of pain catastrophizing. In fact, it seems that the tendency of the individual to engage in the automatic processing processes rather than knowledge-based processes with attention of insufficient flexibility, and lack of awareness of the present moment (Kabat-Zinn, 1990), will cause people to think more about the pain and thus overestimate the resulting risk of it. Thus, little mindfulness allows for the development of negative cognitive evaluation of the pain (Kabat-Zinn, 1990).
Another possible reason may be that the pain acceptance and readiness for change increase positive emotions, leading to a reduction in pain intensity through effects on the endocrine system and the production of endogenous opioids and reduction in pain-related disability or preparing individuals for the use of effective strategies to deal with pain (Kratz, Davis, & Zautra, 2007). Another possible reason to explain the results of the present study in its effectiveness on pain reduction can be the fact that chronic pain is developed due to an overactive stress response system (Chrousos & Gold, 1992). The result is the disturbing of the physical and mental processes. Mindfulness can allow for the access to the frontal cortex and improve it, brain areas that integrate physical and mental functions (Shapiro et al., 1995). The result is the creation of a little stimulation that reduces the intensity and the experience of physical and mental pain. Thus, pain impulses are experienced as feeling of the real pain rather than a negative recognition. The result is the closing of the pain channels that can reduce pain (Astin, 2004).
Mindfulness meditation Reduces Pain Through several Brain Mechanisms and various pathways such as changing of attention in meditation practices might impress both sensory and affective components of pain perception. On the other hand, mindfulness reduces the reactivity to distressing thoughts and feelings that accompany pain perception and strengthen the pain. Also, mindfulness reduces psychological symptoms such as comorbid anxiety and depression and increases parasympathetic activity, which can promote deep muscle relaxation that may reduce pain. Finally, mindfulness may decrease stress and mood dysfunction-related psychophysiologic activation by strengthening reframing negative situation and self-regulation skills. Higher level of mindfulness predicted lower levels of anxiety, depression, catastrophic thinking and disability. Other research has showed that mindfulness has an important role in cognitive and emotional control, and may be useful in reframing negative situations (Zeidan et al., 2011; Zeidan, Grant, Brown, McHaffie, & Coghill, 2012).
The second aim of this study was to determine the effectiveness of the MBSR program on quality of life in patients with chronic headache. This study showed that this treatment was significantly effective on quality of life dimensions, including role limitations due to health status, bodily pain, general health, energy and vitality, emotional health and overall physical and mental health scales. However, the MBSR program could not significantly increase the quality of life in physical functioning, role limitations due to emotional problems and social functioning. It seems apparent from previous and current studies and as well as from the present study that MBSR no effect on physical and social functions. This is likely because that the effects on pain levels in patients with headache are small, and that change is slow. On the other hand, patients with chronic pain have often learned to ignore pain in order to function normally (La Cour & Petersen, 2015). Although, the changes have been in the desired direction and increased the mean scores of the intervention group compared with the control group. These findings are consistent with previous findings (Brown & Ryan, 2003; Carlson et al., 2003; Flugel et al., 2010; Kabat-Zinn, 1982; La Cour & Petersen, 2015; Morgan et al., 2013; Reibel et al., 2001; Rosenzweig et al., 2010).
With regard to the content of the MBSR sessions, this program emphasizes the application of techniques to reduce stress, deal with pain and the awareness of the situation. Giving up the fight and accepting the present situation, without judgment, is the main concept of the program (Flugel et al., 2010). In fact, changes in acceptance without judgment are associated with improvement in quality of life (Rosenzweig et al., 2010). MBSR is aimed to increase awareness of the present moment. The treatment plan is a new and personal way to deal with stress to the individual. External stressors are part of life and cannot be changed, but coping skills and how to respond to the stress can be changed (Flugel et al., 2010). McCracken and velleman (2010) showed that cognitive flexibility and higher mindfulness is associated with less suffering and disability in patients. Patients with chronic pain with higher levels of mindfulness reported less depression, stress, anxiety and pain and also improvement in the self-efficacy and quality of life. Morgan et al. (2013) studying arthritis patients achieved similar results, so that patients with higher levels of mindfulness reported lower stress, depression and higher self-efficacy and quality of life. As noted above it was expected that pain reduction in patients leads to reduced fear and anxiety associated with pain and thereby reduces the resulting functioning limitations. Also, the results of the several studies (Cho, Heiby, McCracken, Lee, & Moon, 2010; McCracken, Gauntlett-Gilbert, & Vowles, 2007; Rosenzweig et al., 2010; Schutz et al., 2010) confirm this finding.
Several studies have been done to evaluate the effectiveness of different types of mindfulness-based treatments on chronic pain, including patients with headache. Unlike other research that examined heterogeneous sets of patients with chronic pain, the advantage of this study is that, it has been only performed on patients with chronic headache.
In the end, it should be acknowledged that there are some limitations in this study such as small sample size, lack of a long-term follow-up program, participants� medication use and arbitrary treatments; and despite the efforts of researchers, the lack of fully similar pharmacotherapy for all participants can confound the test results and make it difficult to generalize the results. Since the present study is the first of its type in patients with chronic headache in Iran, it is suggested that similar studies should be carry out in this field, with larger sample sizes as possible. And further studies investigate the stability of the treatment results in long-term follow-up periods of time.
Conclusion
According to the findings of this study it can be concluded that MBSR methods generally are effective on perceived pain intensity and quality of life of patients with chronic headache. Although there was no statistically significant difference in some aspects of quality of life, such as physical functioning, role limitations due to emotional problems and social functioning, but overall changes in mean were desired to the study. Thus the integrating of MBSR treatment with conventional medical therapy in the treatment protocol for patients with chronic headache can be advised. The researcher also believes that despite the shortcomings and deficiencies of current research, this study could be a new approach to the treatment of chronic headache and could provide a new horizon in this field of treatment.
Acknowledgements
This research was supported (as a thesis) in part by Zahedan University of Medical Sciences. We would like to thank all participants in the study, local healers, the staff of hospitals- Ali -ebn-abitaleb, Khatam-al-anbia and Ali asghar- for their support and help.
In conclusion,�chiropractic care is a safe and effective alternative treatment option utilized to help improve as well as manage chronic headache symptoms by carefully and gently realigning the spine as well as providing stress management methods and techniques. Because stress has been associated with a variety of health issues, including subluxation, or misalignment of the spine, and chronic headache, mindfulness interventions like chiropractic care and mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) are fundamental towards chronic headache. Finally, the article above demonstrated that MBSR can be effectively used as a mindfulness intervention for chronic headache and to improve overall health and wellness. Information referenced from the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic as well as to spinal injuries and conditions. To discuss the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 .
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez
Additional Topics: Back Pain
According to statistics, approximately 80% of people will experience symptoms of back pain at least once throughout their lifetimes. Back pain is a common complaint which can result due to a variety of injuries and/or conditions. Often times, the natural degeneration of the spine with age can cause back pain. Herniated discs occur when the soft, gel-like center of an intervertebral disc pushes through a tear in its surrounding, outer ring of cartilage, compressing and irritating the nerve roots. Disc herniations most commonly occur along the lower back, or lumbar spine, but they may also occur along the cervical spine, or neck. The impingement of the nerves found in the low back due to injury and/or an aggravated condition can lead to symptoms of sciatica.
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Carpal Tunnel Pain: Ottis Hamlet depends largely on the use of his hands to carry out his important craftsmanship in the city of San Antonio, TX. However, Mr. Hamlet developed painful symptoms in both of his arms as a result of carpal tunnel syndrome, which tremendously affected his ability to engage in his job. Fortunately, Ottis Hamlet met Dr. Alex Jimenez during a visit to El Paso, TX and he received chiropractic treatment for his carpal tunnel syndrome, avoiding the need for surgery.
Carpal tunnel syndrome is a medical condition caused by the compression of the median nerve which travels through the wrist and into the carpal tunnel. Common symptoms include pain, tingling sensations and numbness, in the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and the thumb side of the ring fingers. Symptoms normally start gradually and during the evening. Symptoms can extend throughout the arm and weakened grip strength may also occur. Carpal tunnel syndrome can be diagnosed based on symptoms.
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