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Back Clinic Research Studies. Dr. Alex Jimenez has compiled study and research projects that are pertinent to the science and art of chiropractic medicine. The subsets can be classified as following: Case Study, Case Series, Cross-Sectional, Cohort, Case-Control, and Randomized Control Trials. Each subset of study profiles has its merits and scientific significance.

It is our intention to bring clarity to present-day research models. We will discuss and present significant clinical interpretations that may serve outpatients well. Great care in selecting appropriate and well-documented models has been enforced in our blog. We gladly will listen and heed comments on the discussed subject matters presented. For answers to any questions you may have please call Dr. Jimenez at 915-850-0900


The Basic Science of Human Knee Menisci Structure, Composition, and Function

The Basic Science of Human Knee Menisci Structure, Composition, and Function

The knee is one of the most complex joints in the human body, consisting of the thigh bone, or femur, the shin bone, or tibia, and the kneecap, or patella, among other soft tissues. Tendons connect the bones to the muscles while ligaments connect the bones of the knee joint. Two wedge-shaped pieces of cartilage, known as the meniscus, provide stability to the knee joint. The purpose of the article below is to demonstrate as well as discuss the anatomy of the knee joint and its surrounding soft tissues.

 

Abstract

 

  • Context: Information regarding the structure, composition, and function of the knee menisci has been scattered across multiple sources and fields. This review contains a concise, detailed description of the knee menisci�including anatomy, etymology, phylogeny, ultrastructure and biochemistry, vascular anatomy and neuroanatomy, biomechanical function, maturation and aging, and imaging modalities.
  • Evidence Acquisition: A literature search was performed by a review of PubMed and OVID articles published from 1858 to 2011.
  • Results: This study highlights the structural, compositional, and functional characteristics of the menisci, which may be relevant to clinical presentations, diagnosis, and surgical repairs.
  • Conclusions: An understanding of the normal anatomy and biomechanics of the menisci is a necessary prerequisite to understanding the pathogenesis of disorders involving the knee.
  • Keywords: knee, meniscus, anatomy, function

 

Introduction

 

Once described as a functionless embryonic remnant,162 the menisci are now known to be vital for the normal function and long-term health of the knee joint.� The menisci increase stability for femorotibial articulation, distribute axial load, absorb shock, and provide lubrication and nutrition to the knee joint.4,91,152,153

 

Injuries to the menisci are recognized as a cause of significant musculoskeletal morbidity. The unique and complex structure of menisci makes treatment and repair challenging for the patient, surgeon, and physical therapist. Furthermore, long-term damage may lead to degenerative joint changes such as osteophyte formation, articular cartilage degeneration, joint space narrowing, and symptomatic osteoarthritis.36,45,92 Preservation of the menisci depends on maintaining their distinctive composition and organization.

 

Anatomy of Menisci

 

Meniscal Etymology

 

The word meniscus comes from the Greek word m?niskos, meaning �crescent,� diminutive of m?n?, meaning �moon.�

 

Meniscal Phylogeny and Comparative Anatomy

 

Hominids exhibit similar anatomic and functional characteristics, including a bicondylar distal femur, intra-articular cruciate ligaments, menisci, and asymmetrical collateral.40,66 These similar morphologic characteristics reflect a shared genetic lineage that can be traced back more than 300 million years.40,66,119

 

In the primate lineage leading to humans, hominids evolved to bipedal stance approximately 3 to 4 million years ago, and by 1.3 million years ago, the modern patellofemoral joint was established (with a longer lateral patellar facet and matching lateral femoral trochlea).164 Tardieu investigated the transition from occasional bipedalism to permanent bipedalism and observed that primates contain a medial and lateral fibrocartilaginous meniscus, with the medial meniscus being morphologically similar in all primates (crescent shaped with 2 tibial insertions).163 By contrast, the lateral meniscus was observed to be more variable in shape. Unique in Homo sapiens is the presence of 2 tibial insertions�1 anterior and 1 posterior�indicating a habitual practice of full extension movements of the knee joint during the stance and swing phases of bipedal walking.20,134,142,163,168

 

Embryology and Development

 

The characteristic shape of the lateral and medial menisci is attained between the 8th and 10th week of gestation.53,60 They arise from a condensation of the intermediate layer of mesenchymal tissue to form attachments to the surrounding joint capsule.31,87,110 The developing menisci are highly cellular and vascular, with the blood supply entering from the periphery and extending through the entire width of the menisci.31 As the fetus continues to develop, there is a gradual decrease in the cellularity of the menisci with a concomitant increase in the collagen content in a circumferential arrangement.30,31 Joint motion and the postnatal stress of weightbearing are important factors in determining the orientation of collagen fibers. By adulthood, only the peripheral 10% to 30% have a blood supply.12,31

 

Despite these histologic changes, the proportion of tibial plateau covered by the corresponding meniscus is relatively constant throughout fetal development, with the medial and lateral menisci covering approximately 60% and 80% of the surface areas, respectively.31

 

Gross Anatomy

 

Gross examination of the knee menisci reveals a smooth, lubricated tissue (Figure 1). They are crescent-shaped wedges of fibrocartilage located on the medial and lateral aspects of the knee joint (Figure 2A). The peripheral, vascular border (also known as the red zone) of each meniscus is thick, convex, and attached to the joint capsule. The innermost border (also known as the white zone) tapers to a thin free edge. The superior surfaces of menisci are concave, enabling effective articulation with their respective convex femoral condyles. The inferior surfaces are flat to accommodate the tibial plateau (Figure 1).28,175

 

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Medial meniscus. The semicircular medial meniscus measures approximately 35 mm in diameter (anterior to posterior) and is significantly broader posteriorly than it is anteriorly.175 The anterior horn is attached to the tibia plateau near the intercondylar fossa anterior to the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL). There is significant variability in the attachment location of the anterior horn of the medial meniscus. The posterior horn is attached to the posterior intercondylar fossa of the tibia between the lateral meniscus and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL; Figures 1 and and2B).2B). Johnson et al reexamined the tibial insertion sites of the menisci and their topographic relationships to surrounding anatomic landmarks of the knee.82 They found that the anterior and posterior horn insertion sites of the medial meniscus were larger than those of the lateral meniscus. The area of the anterior horn insertion site of the medial meniscus was the largest overall, measuring 61.4 mm2, whereas the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus was the smallest, at 28.5 mm2.82

 

The tibial portion of the capsular attachment is the coronary ligament. At its midpoint, the medial meniscus is more firmly attached to the femur through a condensation in the joint capsule known as the deep medial collateral ligament.175 The transverse, or �intermeniscal,� ligament is a fibrous band of tissue that connects the anterior horn of the medial meniscus to the anterior horn of the lateral meniscus (Figures 1 and and2A2A).

 

Lateral meniscus. The lateral meniscus is almost circular, with an approximately uniform width from anterior to posterior (Figures 1 and and2A).2A). It occupies a larger portion (~80%) of the articular surface than the medial meniscus (~60%) and is more mobile.10,31,165 Both horns of the lateral meniscus are attached to the tibia. The insertion of the anterior horn of the lateral meniscus lies anterior to the intercondylar eminence and adjacent to the broad attachment site of the ACL (Figure 2B).9,83 The posterior horn of the lateral meniscus inserts posterior to the lateral tibial spine and just anterior to the insertion of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus (Figure 2B).83 The lateral meniscus is loosely attached to the capsular ligament; however, these fibers do not attach to the lateral collateral ligament. The posterior horn of the lateral meniscus attaches to the inner aspect of the medial femoral condyle via the anterior and posterior meniscofemoral ligaments of Humphrey and Wrisberg, respectively, which originate near the origin of the PCL (Figures 1 and and22).75

 

Meniscofemoral ligaments. The literature reports significant inconsistencies in the presence and size of meniscofemoral ligaments of the lateral meniscus. There may be none, 1, 2, or 4.? When present, these accessory ligaments transverse from the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus to the lateral aspect of the medial femoral condyle. They insert immediately adjacent to the femoral attachment of the PCL (Figures 1 and and22).

 

In a series of studies, Harner et al measured the cross-sectional area of the ligaments and found that the meniscofemoral ligament averaged 20% of the size of the PCL (range, 7%-35%).69,70 However, the size of the insertional area alone without knowledge of the insertional angle or collagen density does not indicate their relative strength.115 The function of these ligaments remains unknown; they may pull the posterior horn of the lateral meniscus in an anterior direction to increase the congruity of the meniscotibial fossa and the lateral femoral condyle.75

 

Ultrastructure and Biochemistry

 

Extracellular Matrix

 

The meniscus is a dense extracellular matrix (ECM) composed primarily of water (72%) and collagen (22%), interposed with cells.9,55,56,77 Proteoglycans, noncollagenous proteins, and glycoproteins account for the remaining dry weight.� Meniscal cells synthesize and maintain the ECM, which determines the material properties of the tissue.

 

The cells of the menisci are referred to as fibrochondrocytes because they appear to be a mixture of fibroblasts and chondrocytes.111,177 The cells in the more superficial layer of the menisci are fusiform or spindle shaped (more fibroblastic), whereas the cells located deeper in the meniscus are ovoid or polygonal (more chondrocytic).55,56,178 Cell morphology does not differ between the peripheral and central locations in the menisci.56

 

Both cell types contain abundant endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi complex. Mitochondria are only occasionally visualized, suggesting that the major pathway for energy production of fibrochondrocytes in their avascular milieu is probably anaerobic glycolysis.112

 

Water

 

In normal, healthy menisci, tissue fluid represents 65% to 70% of the total weight. Most of the water is retained within the tissue in the solvent domains of proteoglycans. The water content of meniscal tissue is higher in the posterior areas than in the central or anterior areas; tissue samples from surface and deeper layers had similar contents.135

 

Large hydraulic pressures are required to overcome the drag of frictional resistance of forcing fluid flow through meniscal tissue. Thus, interactions between water and the matrix macromolecular framework significantly influence the viscoelastic properties of the tissue.

 

Collagens

 

Collagens are primarily responsible for the tensile strength of menisci; they contribute up to 75% of the dry weight of the ECM.77 The ECM is composed primarily of type I collagen (90% dry weight) with variable amounts of types II, III, V, and VI.43,44,80,112,181 The predominance of type I collagen distinguishes the fibrocartilage of menisci from articular (hyaline) cartilage. The collagens are heavily cross-linked by hydroxylpyridinium aldehydes.44

 

The collagen fiber arrangement is ideal for transferring a vertical compressive load into circumferential �hoop� stresses (Figure 3).57 Type I collagen fibers are oriented circumferentially in the deeper layers of the meniscus, parallel to the peripheral border. These fibers blend the ligamentous connections of the meniscal horns to the tibial articular surface (Figure 3).10,27,49,156 In the most superficial region of the menisci, the type I fibers are oriented in a more radial direction. Radially oriented �tie� fibers are also present in the deep zone and are interspersed or woven between the circumferential fibers to provide structural integrity (Figure 3).# There is lipid debris and calcified bodies in the ECM of human menisci.54 The calcified bodies contain long, slender crystals of phosphorous, calcium, and magnesium on electron-probe roentgenographic analysis.54 The function of these crystals in not completely understood, but it is believed that they may play a role in acute joint inflammation and destructive arthropathies.

 

 

Noncollagenous matrix proteins, such as fibronectin, contribute 8% to 13% of the organic dry weight. Fibronectin is involved in many cellular processes, including tissue repair, embryogenesis, blood clotting, and cell migration/adhesion. Elastin forms less than 0.6% of the meniscus dry weight; its ultrastructural localization is not clear. It likely interacts directly with collagen to provide resiliency to the tissue.**

 

Proteoglycans

 

Located within a fine meshwork of collagen fibrils, proteoglycans are large, negatively charged hydrophilic molecules, contributing 1% to 2% of dry weight.58 They are formed by a core protein with 1 or more covalently attached glycosaminoglycan chains (Figure 4).122 The size of these molecules is further increased by specific interaction with hyaluronic acid.67,72 The amount of proteoglycans in the meniscus is one-eighth that of articular cartilage,2,3 and there may be considerable variation depending on the site of the sample and the age of the patient.49

 

 

By virtue of their specialized structure, high fixed-charge density, and charge-charge repulsion forces, proteoglycans in the ECM are responsible for hydration and provide the tissue with a high capacity to resist compressive loads.� The glycosaminoglycan profile of the normal adult human meniscus consists of chondroitin-6-sulfate (40%), chondroitin-4-sulfate (10% to 20%), dermatan sulfate (20% to 30%), and keratin sulfate (15%; Figure 4).65,77,99,159 The highest glycosaminoglycan concentrations are found in the meniscal horns and the inner half of the menisci in the primary weightbearing areas.58,77

 

Aggrecan is the major proteoglycan found in the human menisci and is largely responsible for their viscoelastic compressive properties (Figure 5). Smaller proteoglycans, such as decorin, biglycan, and fibromodulin, are found in smaller amounts.124,151 Hexosamine contributes 1% to the dry weight of ECM.57,74 The precise functions of each of these small proteoglycans on the meniscus have yet to be fully elucidated.

 

 

Matrix Glycoproteins

 

Meniscal cartilage contains a range of matrix glycoproteins, the identities and functions of which have yet to be determined. Electrophoresis and subsequent staining of the polyacrylamide gels reveals bands with molecular weights varying from a few kilodaltons to more than 200 kDa.112 These matrix molecules include the link proteins that stabilize proteoglycan�hyaluronic acid aggregates and a 116-kDa protein of unknown function.46 This protein resides in the matrix in the form of disulfide-bonded complex of high molecular weight.46 Immunolocalization studies suggest that it is predominantly located around the collagen bundles in the interterritorial matrix.47

 

The adhesive glycoproteins constitute a subgroup of the matrix glycoproteins. These macromolecules are partly responsible for binding with other matrix molecules and/or cells. Such intermolecular adhesion molecules are therefore important components in the supramolecular organization of the extracellular molecules of the meniscus.150 Three molecules have been identified within the meniscus: type VI collagen, fibronectin, and thrombospondin.112,118,181

 

Vascular Anatomy

 

The meniscus is a relatively avascular structure with a limited peripheral blood supply. The medial, lateral, and middle geniculate arteries (which branch off the popliteal artery) provide the major vascularization to the inferior and superior aspects of each meniscus (Figure 5).9,12,33-35,148 The middle geniculate artery is a small posterior branch that perforates the oblique popliteal ligament at the posteromedial corner of the tibiofemoral joint. A premeniscal capillary network arising from the branches of these arteries originates within the synovial and capsular tissues of the knee along the periphery of the menisci. The peripheral 10% to 30% of the medial meniscus border and 10% to 25% of the lateral meniscus are relatively well vascularized, which has important implications for meniscus healing (Figure 6).12,33,68 Endoligamentous vessels from the anterior and posterior horns travel a short distance into the substance of the menisci and form terminal loops, providing a direct route for nourishment.33 The remaining portion of each meniscus (65% to 75%) receives nourishment from synovial fluid via diffusion or mechanical pumping (ie, joint motion).116,120

 

 

Bird and Sweet examined the menisci of animals and humans using scanning electron and light microscopy.23,24 They observed canal-like structures opening deep into the surface of the menisci. These canals may play a role in the transport of fluid within the meniscus and may carry nutrients from the synovial fluid and blood vessels to the avascular sections of the meniscus.23,24 However, further study is needed to elucidate the exact mechanism by which mechanical motion supplies nutrition to the avascular portion of the menisci.

 

Neuroanatomy

 

The knee joint is innervated by the posterior articular branch of the posterior tibial nerve and the terminal branches of the obturator and femoral nerves. The lateral portion of the capsule is innervated by the recurrent peroneal branch of the common peroneal nerve. These nerve fibers penetrate the capsule and follow the vascular supply to the peripheral portion of the menisci and the anterior and posterior horns, where most of the nerve fibers are concentrated.52,90 The outer third of the body of the meniscus is more densely innervated than the middle third.183,184 During extremes of flexion and extension of the knee, the meniscal horns are stressed, and the afferent input is likely greatest at these extreme positions.183,184

 

The mechanoreceptors within the menisci function as transducers, converting the physical stimulus of tension and compression into a specific electrical nerve impulse. Studies of human menisci have identified 3 morphologically distinct mechanoreceptors: Ruffini endings, Pacinian corpuscles, and Golgi tendon organs.�� Type I (Ruffini) mechanoreceptors are low threshold and slowly adapting to the changes in joint deformation and pressure. Type II (Pacinian) mechanoreceptors are low threshold and fast adapting to tension changes.�� Type III (Golgi) are high-threshold mechanoreceptors, which signal when the knee joint approaches the terminal range of motion and are associated with neuromuscular inhibition. These neural elements were found in greater concentration in the meniscal horns, particularly the posterior horn.

 

The asymmetrical components of the knee act in concert as a type of biological transmission that accepts, transfers, and dissipates loads along the femur, tibia, patella, and femur.41 Ligaments act as an adaptive linkage, with the menisci representing mobile bearings. Several studies have reported that various intra-articular components of the knee are sensate, capable of generating neurosensory signals that reach spinal, cerebellar, and higher central nervous system levels.?? It is believed that these neurosensory signals result in conscious perception and are important for normal knee joint function and maintenance of tissue homeostasis.42

Dr Jimenez White Coat

The meniscus is cartilage which provides structural and functional integrity to the knee. The menisci are two pads of fibrocartilaginous tissue which spread out friction in the knee joint when it undergoes tension and torsion between the shin bone, or tibia, and the thigh bone, or femur. The understanding of the anatomy and biomechanics of the knee joint is essential towards the understanding of knee injuries and/or conditions. Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight

Biomechanical Function

 

The biomechanical function of the meniscus is a reflection of the gross and ultrastructural anatomy and of its relationship to the surrounding intra-articular and extra-articular structures. The menisci serve many important biomechanical functions. They contribute to load transmission,�� shock absorption,10,49,94,96,170 stability,51,100,101,109,155 nutrition,23,24,84,141 joint lubrication,102-104,141 and proprioception.5,15,81,88,115,147 They also serve to decrease contact stresses and increase contact area and congruity of the knee.91,172

 

Meniscal Kinematics

 

In a study on ligamentous function, Brantigan and Voshell reported the medial meniscus to move an average 2 mm, while the lateral meniscus was markedly more mobile with approximately 10 mm of anterior-posterior displacement during flexion.25 Similarly, DePalma reported that the medial meniscus undergoes 3 mm of anterior-posterior displacement, while the lateral meniscus moves 9 mm during flexion.37 In a study using 5 cadaveric knees, Thompson et al reported the mean medial excursion to be 5.1 mm (average of anterior and posterior horns) and the mean lateral excursion, 11.2 mm, along the tibial articular surface (Figure 7).165 The findings from these studies confirm a significant difference in segmental motion between the medial and lateral menisci. The anterior and posterior horn lateral meniscus ratio is smaller and indicates that the meniscus moves more as a single unit.165 Alternatively, the medial meniscus (as a whole) moves less than the lateral meniscus, displaying a greater anterior to posterior horn differential excursion. Thompson et al found that the area of least meniscal motion is the posterior medial corner, where the meniscus is constrained by its attachment to the tibial plateau by the meniscotibial portion of the posterior oblique ligament, which has been reported to be more prone to injury.143,165 A reduction in the motion of the posterior horn of the medial meniscus is a potential mechanism for meniscal tears, with a resultant �trapping� of the fibrocartilage between the femoral condyle and the tibial plateau during full flexion. The greater differential between anterior and posterior horn excursion may place the medial meniscus at a greater risk of injury.165

 

 

The differential of anterior horn to posterior horn motion allows the menisci to assume a decreasing radius with flexion, which correlates to the decreased radius of curvature of the posterior femoral condyles.165 This change of radius allows the meniscus to maintain contact with the articulating surface of both the femur and the tibia throughout flexion.

 

Load Transmission

 

The function of the menisci has been clinically inferred by the degenerative changes that accompany its removal. Fairbank described the increased incidence and predictable degenerative changes of the articular surfaces in completely meniscectomized knees.45 Since this early work, numerous studies have confirmed these findings and have further established the important role of the meniscus as a protective, load-bearing structure.

 

Weightbearing produces axial forces across the knee, which compress the menisci, resulting in �hoop� (circumferential) stresses.170 Hoop stresses are generated as axial forces and converted to tensile stresses along the circumferential collagen fibers of the meniscus (Figure 8). Firm attachments by the anterior and posterior insertional ligaments prevent the meniscus from extruding peripherally during load bearing.94 Studies by Seedhom and Hargreaves reported that 70% of the load in the lateral compartment and 50% of the load in the medial compartment is transmitted through the menisci.153 The menisci transmit 50% of compressive load through the posterior horns in extension, with 85% transmission at 90� flexion.172 Radin et al demonstrated that these loads are well distributed when the menisci are intact.137 However, removal of the medial meniscus results in a 50% to 70% reduction in femoral condyle contact area and a 100% increase in contact stress.4,50,91 Total lateral meniscectomy results in a 40% to 50% decrease in contact area and increases contact stress in the lateral component to 200% to 300% of normal.18,50,76,91 This significantly increases the load per unit area and may contribute to accelerated articular cartilage damage and degeneration.45,85

 

 

Shock Absorption

 

The menisci play a vital role in attenuating the intermittent shock waves generated by impulse loading of the knee with normal gait.94,96,153 Voloshin and Wosk showed that the normal knee has a shock-absorbing capacity about 20% higher than knees that have undergone meniscectomy.170 As the inability of a joint system to absorb shock has been implicated in the development of osteoarthritis, the meniscus would appear to play an important role in maintaining the health of the knee joint.138

 

Joint Stability

 

The geometric structure of the menisci provides an important role in maintaining joint congruity and stability.## The superior surface of each meniscus is concave, enabling effective articulation between the convex femoral condyles and flat tibial plateau. When the meniscus is intact, axial loading of the knee has a multidirectional stabilizing function, limiting excess motion in all directions.9

 

Markolf and colleagues have addressed the effect of meniscectomy on anterior-posterior and rotational knee laxity. Medial meniscectomy in the ACL-intact knee has little effect on anterior-posterior motion, but in the ACL-deficient knee, it results in an increase in anterior-posterior tibial translation of up to 58% at 90o of flexion.109 Shoemaker and Markolf demonstrated that the posterior horn of the medial meniscus is the most important structure resisting an anterior tibial force in the ACL-deficient knee.155 Allen et al showed that the resultant force in the medial meniscus of the ACL-deficient knee increased by 52% in full extension and by 197% at 60� of flexion under a 134-N anterior tibial load.7 The large changes in kinematics due to medial meniscectomy in the ACL-deficient knee confirm the important role of the medial meniscus in knee stability. Recently, Musahl et al reported that the lateral meniscus plays a role in anterior tibial translation during the pivot-shift maneuver.123

 

Joint Nutrition and Lubrication

 

The menisci may also play a role in the nutrition and lubrication of the knee joint. The mechanics of this lubrication remains unknown; the menisci may compress synovial fluid into the articular cartilage, which reduces frictional forces during weightbearing.13

 

There is a system of microcanals within the meniscus located close to the blood vessels, which communicates with the synovial cavity; these may provide fluid transport for nutrition and joint lubrication.23,24

 

Proprioception

 

The perception of joint motion and position (proprioception) is mediated by mechanoreceptors that transduce mechanical deformation into electric neural signals. Mechanoreceptors have been identified in the anterior and posterior horns of the menisci.*** Quick-adapting mechanoreceptors, such as Pacinian corpuscles, are thought to mediate the sensation of joint motion, and slow-adapting receptors, such as Ruffini endings and Golgi tendon organs, are believed to mediate the sensation of joint position.140 The identification of these neural elements (located mostly in the middle and outer third of the meniscus) indicates that the menisci are capable of detecting proprioceptive information in the knee joint, thus playing an important afferent role in the sensory feedback mechanism of the knee.61,88,90,158,169

 

Maturation and Aging of The Meniscus

 

The microanatomy of the meniscus is complex and certainly demonstrates senescent changes. With advancing age, the meniscus becomes stiffer, loses elasticity, and becomes yellow.78,95 Microscopically, there is a gradual loss of cellular elements with empty spaces and an increase in fibrous tissue in comparison with elastic tissue.74 These cystic areas can initiate a tear, and with a torsional force by the femoral condyle, the superficial layers of the meniscus may shear off from the deep layer at the interface of the cystic degenerative change, producing a horizontal cleavage tear. Shear between these layers may cause pain. The torn meniscus may directly injure the overlying articular cartilage.74,95

 

Ghosh and Taylor found that collagen concentration increased from birth to 30 years and remained constant until 80 years of age, after which a decline occurred.58 The noncollagenous matrix proteins showed the most profound changes, decreasing from 21.9% � 1.0% (dry weight) in neonates to 8.1% � 0.8% between the ages of 30 to 70 years.80 After 70 years of age, the noncollagenous matrix protein levels increased to 11.6% � 1.3%. Peters and Smillie observed an increase in hexosamine and uronic acid with age.131

 

McNicol and Roughley studied the variation of meniscal proteoglycans in aging113; small differences in extractability and hydrodynamic size were observed. The proportions of keratin sulfate relative to chondroitin-6-sulfate increased with aging.146

 

Petersen and Tillmann immunohistochemically investigated human menisci (ranging from 22 weeks of gestation to 80 years), observing the differentiation of blood vessels and lymphatics in 20 human cadavers. At the time of birth, nearly the entire meniscus was vascularized. In the second year of life, an avascular area developed in the inner circumference. In the second decade, blood vessels were present in the peripheral third. After 50 years of age, only the peripheral quarter of the meniscal base was vascularized. The dense connective tissue of the insertion was vascularized but not the fibrocartilage of the insertion. Blood vessels were accompanied by lymphatics in all areas.���

 

Arnoczky suggested that body weight and knee joint motion may eliminate blood vessels in the inner and middle aspects of the menisci.9 Nutrition of meniscal tissue occurs via perfusion from blood vessels and via diffusion from synovial fluid. A requirement for nutrition via diffusion is the intermittent loading and release on the articular surfaces, stressed by body weight and muscle forces.130 The mechanism is comparable with the nutrition of articular cartilage.22

 

Magnetic Resonance Imaging of The Meniscus

 

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a noninvasive diagnostic tool used in the evaluation, diagnosis, and monitoring of the menisci. MRI is widely accepted as the optimal imaging modality because of superior soft tissue contrast.

 

On cross-sectional MRI, the normal meniscus appears as a uniform low-signal (dark) triangular structure (Figure 9). A meniscal tear is identified by the presence of an increased intrameniscal signal that extends to the surface of this structure.

 

 

Several studies have evaluated the clinical utility of MRI for meniscal tears. In general, MRI is highly sensitive and specific for tears of the meniscus. The sensitivity of MRI in detecting meniscal tears ranges from 70% to 98%, and the specificity, from 74% to 98%.48,62,105,107,117 The MRI of 1014 patients before an arthroscopic examination had an accuracy of 89% for pathology of the medial meniscus and 88% for the lateral meniscus.48 A meta-analysis of 2000 patients with an MRI and arthroscopic examination found 88% sensitivity and 94% accuracy for meniscal tears.105,107

 

There have been discrepancies between MRI diagnoses and the pathology identified during arthroscopic examination.��� Justice and Quinn reported discrepancies in the diagnosis of 66 of the 561 patients (12%).86 In a study of 92 patients, discrepancies between the MRI and arthroscopic diagnoses were noted in 22 of the 349 (6%) cases.106 Miller conducted a single-blind prospective study comparing clinical examinations and MRI in 57 knee examinations.117 He found no significant difference in sensitivity between the clinical examination and MRI (80.7% and 73.7%, respectively). Shepard et al assessed the accuracy of MRI in detecting clinically significant lesions of the anterior horn of the meniscus in 947 consecutive knee MRI154 and found a 74% false-positive rate. Increased signal intensity in the anterior horn does not necessarily indicate a clinically significant lesion.154

 

Conclusions

 

The menisci of the knee joint are crescent-shaped wedges of fibrocartilage that provide increased stability to the femorotibial articulation, distribute axial load, absorb shock, and provide lubrication to the knee joint. Injuries to the menisci are recognized as a cause of significant musculoskeletal morbidity. Preservation of the menisci is highly dependent on maintaining its distinctive composition and organization.

 

Acknowledgements

 

Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3435920/

 

Footnotes

 

Ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3435920/

 

In conclusion, the knee is the largest and most complex�joint in the human body. However, because the knee can commonly become damaged as a result of an injury and/or condition, it’s essential to understand the anatomy of the knee joint in order for patients to receive proper treatment.� The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal health issues. To discuss the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at�915-850-0900�.

 

Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez

 

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Additional Topic Discussion: Relieving Knee Pain without Surgery

 

Knee pain is a well-known symptom which can occur due to a variety of knee injuries and/or conditions, including�sports injuries. The knee is one of the most complex joints in the human body as it is made-up of the intersection of four bones, four ligaments, various tendons, two menisci, and cartilage. According to the American Academy of Family Physicians, the most common causes of knee pain include patellar subluxation, patellar tendinitis or jumper’s knee, and Osgood-Schlatter disease. Although knee pain is most likely to occur in people over 60 years old, knee pain can also occur in children and adolescents. Knee pain can be treated at home following the RICE methods, however, severe knee injuries may require immediate medical attention, including chiropractic care.

 

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EXTRA EXTRA | IMPORTANT TOPIC: El Paso, TX Chiropractor Recommended

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158. Skinner HB, Barrack RL, Cook SD. Age-related decline in proprioceptionClin Orthop Relat Res. 1984;184:208-211 [PubMed]
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160. Spilker RL, Donzelli PS. A biphasic finite element model of the meniscus for stress-strain analysis. In: Mow VC, Arnoczky SP, Jackson DW, editors. , eds. Knee Meniscus: Basic and Clinical Foundations. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1992:91-106
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Sports Injury Rehabilitation | Video | El Paso, Tx

Sports Injury Rehabilitation | Video | El Paso, Tx

Louie Martinez has been a Wrestling coach for 15 years, coaching young athletes ranging from 8 to 15 years old. Louie Martinez shares how he met Dr. Alex Jimenez 10 years ago after he suffered an initial injury. Coach Martinez has experienced a variety of injuries throughout his coaching career, from shoulder injuries to back injuries, and every time, Dr. Alex Jimenez has helped Coach Martinez regain his health. Before meeting Dr. Jimenez, Louie Martinez didn’t understand the importance of seeing a chiropractor. Louie Martinez recommends Dr. Alex Jimenez as the non-surgical choice for sports injuries.

Sports Injury Rehabilitation

When visiting a chiropractor for sports injuries, a physical exam will help pinpoint the health issue to make an individualized treatment plan to treat it. Chiropractic care was observed in several studies to reduce the healing time of sports injuries, as well as help prevent future sports injuries. It’s important to understand your chiropractor. The healthcare professional might have useful suggestions that can keep you healthy as you work to attain your athletic objectives.

Sports injury chiropractic treatment el paso tx.

 

We are blessed to present to you�El Paso�s Premier Wellness & Injury Care Clinic.

Our services are specialized and focused on injuries and the complete recovery process.�Our areas of practice includeWellness & Nutrition, Chronic Pain,�Personal Injury,�Auto Accident Care, Work Injuries, Back Injury, Low�Back Pain, Neck Pain, Migraine Treatment, Sports Injuries,�Severe Sciatica, Scoliosis, Complex Herniated Discs,�Fibromyalgia, Chronic Pain, Stress Management, and Complex Injuries.

As El Paso�s Chiropractic Rehabilitation Clinic & Integrated Medicine Center,�we passionately are focused on treating patients after frustrating injuries and chronic pain syndromes. We focus on improving your ability through flexibility, mobility and agility programs tailored for all age groups and disabilities.

If you have enjoyed this video and we have helped you in any way, please feel free to subscribe and recommend�us.

Recommend: Dr. Alex Jimenez � Chiropractor

Health Grades: www.healthgrades.com/review/3SDJ4

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Clinical Site: www.dralexjimenez.com

Injury Site: personalinjurydoctorgroup.com

Sports Injury Site: chiropracticscientist.com

Back Injury Site: elpasobackclinic.com

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Chiropractic Help in Pregnancy | El Paso, TX

Chiropractic Help in Pregnancy | El Paso, TX

Truide Torres started having back pain throughout the progression of her pregnancy. After she began to experiencing many limitations with her daily physical activities, Truide Torres visited Dr. Alex Jimenez, chiropractor, to receive chiropractic care for her back pain. Because of her pregnancy, Truide Torres had some doubts, and she felt unsure about receiving chiropractic care. However, Dr. Alex Jimenez and his staff reassured her and gave her the confidence to follow through with her treatment. Truide Torres recommends Dr. Alex Jimenez to anyone.

Chiropractic Help in Pregnancy

Chiropractic care provides maintenance to the spinal column, discs, bones, and nerves without drugs/medications or surgery. It helps correct any spinal misalignments, or subluxations, which reduces spinal nerve strain and promotes health and wellness throughout the body. There are no known contraindications to chiropractic care during pregnancy. All chiropractors are trained to work with women who are pregnant. Providing chiropractic care for pregnant women is routine care for the majority of chiropractors.

pregnancy chiropractic care el paso tx.

 

We are blessed to present to you�El Paso�s Premier Wellness & Injury Care Clinic.

Our services are specialized and focused on injuries and the complete recovery process.�Our areas of practice includeWellness & Nutrition, Chronic Pain,�Personal Injury,�Auto Accident Care, Work Injuries, Back Injury, Low�Back Pain, Neck Pain, Migraine Treatment, Sports Injuries,�Severe Sciatica, Scoliosis, Complex Herniated Discs,�Fibromyalgia, Chronic Pain, Stress Management, and Complex Injuries.

As El Paso�s Chiropractic Rehabilitation Clinic & Integrated Medicine Center,�we passionately are focused on treating patients after frustrating injuries and chronic pain syndromes. We focus on improving your ability through flexibility, mobility and agility programs tailored for all age groups and disabilities.

If you have enjoyed this video and we have helped you in any way, please feel free to subscribe and recommend�us.

Recommend: Dr. Alex Jimenez � Chiropractor

Health Grades: www.healthgrades.com/review/3SDJ4

Facebook Clinical Page: www.facebook.com/dralexjimene…

Facebook Sports Page: www.facebook.com/pushasrx/

Facebook Injuries Page: www.facebook.com/elpasochirop…

Facebook Neuropathy Page: www.facebook.com/ElPasoNeurop…

Yelp: goo.gl/pwY2n2

Clinical Testimonies: www.dralexjimenez.com/categor…

Information: Dr. Alex Jimenez � Chiropractor

Clinical Site: www.dralexjimenez.com

Injury Site: personalinjurydoctorgroup.com

Sports Injury Site: chiropracticscientist.com

Back Injury Site: elpasobackclinic.com

Linked In: www.linkedin.com/in/dralexjim…

Pinterest: www.pinterest.com/dralexjimenez/

Twitter: twitter.com/dralexjimenez

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Recommend: PUSH-as-Rx ��

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Sciatica Chiropractic Treatment | El Paso, TX

Sciatica Chiropractic Treatment | El Paso, TX

Edgar M. Reyes works for the city of El Paso, TX. Recommended by one of his wife’s friends, Mr. Reyes visited Dr. Alex Jimenez, chiropractor, to receive treatment for his sciatica symptoms. Edgar Reyes struggled to walk due to his sciatic nerve pain before seeing Dr. Jimenez, but thanks to the chiropractic care he’s received, Mr. Reyes can walk again. Edgar M. Reyes highly recommends Dr. Alex Jimenez as the non-surgical choice for sciatica treatment.

Sciatica Chiropractic Treatment

The primary objective of sciatica treatment is to alleviate pain in the legs and lower back. This can be accomplished via a variety of methods, including medications and physical therapy. Chiropractic care can also help. Doctors of Chiropractic (DC) or chiropractors, regularly treat sciatica. Sciatica is characterized by pain that originates in the lower back or buttock which travels into one or both legs. Sciatic nerve pain varies in intensity and frequency; minimum, moderate, severe and intermittent, frequent or constant.

sciatica treatment chiropractor el paso tx.

We are blessed to present to you�El Paso�s Premier Wellness & Injury Care Clinic.

Our services are specialized and focused on injuries and the complete recovery process.�Our areas of practice includeWellness & Nutrition, Chronic Pain,�Personal Injury,�Auto Accident Care, Work Injuries, Back Injury, Low�Back Pain, Neck Pain, Migraine Treatment, Sports Injuries,�Severe Sciatica, Scoliosis, Complex Herniated Discs,�Fibromyalgia, Chronic Pain, Stress Management, and Complex Injuries.

As El Paso�s Chiropractic Rehabilitation Clinic & Integrated Medicine Center,�we passionately are focused on treating patients after frustrating injuries and chronic pain syndromes. We focus on improving your ability through flexibility, mobility and agility programs tailored for all age groups and disabilities.

If you have enjoyed this video and we have helped you in any way, please feel free to subscribe and recommend�us.

Recommend: Dr. Alex Jimenez � Chiropractor

Health Grades: www.healthgrades.com/review/3SDJ4

Facebook Clinical Page: www.facebook.com/dralexjimene…

Facebook Sports Page: www.facebook.com/pushasrx/

Facebook Injuries Page: www.facebook.com/elpasochirop…

Facebook Neuropathy Page: www.facebook.com/ElPasoNeurop…

Yelp: goo.gl/pwY2n2

Clinical Testimonies: www.dralexjimenez.com/categor…

Information: Dr. Alex Jimenez � Chiropractor

Clinical Site: www.dralexjimenez.com

Injury Site: personalinjurydoctorgroup.com

Sports Injury Site: chiropracticscientist.com

Back Injury Site: elpasobackclinic.com

Linked In: www.linkedin.com/in/dralexjim…

Pinterest: www.pinterest.com/dralexjimenez/

Twitter: twitter.com/dralexjimenez

Twitter: twitter.com/crossfitdoctor

Recommend: PUSH-as-Rx ��

Rehabilitation Center: www.pushasrx.com

Facebook: www.facebook.com/PUSHftinessa…

PUSH-as-Rx: www.push4fitness.com/team/

Evaluation of Patients Presenting with Knee Pain: Part II. Differential Diagnosis

Evaluation of Patients Presenting with Knee Pain: Part II. Differential Diagnosis

The knee is the largest joint in the human body, where the complex structures of the lower and upper legs come together. Consisting of three bones, the femur, the tibia, and the patella which are surrounded by a variety of soft tissues, including cartilage, tendons and ligaments, the knee functions as a hinge, allowing you to walk, jump, squat or sit. As a result, however, the knee is considered to be one of the joints that are most prone to suffer injury. A knee injury is the prevalent cause of knee pain.

A knee injury can occur as a result of a direct impact from a slip-and-fall accident or automobile accident, overuse injury from sports injuries, or even due to underlying conditions, such as arthritis. Knee pain is a common symptom which affects people of all ages. It may also start suddenly or develop gradually over time, beginning as a mild or moderate discomfort then slowly worsening as time progresses. Moreover, being overweight can increase the risk of knee problems. The purpose of the following article is to discuss the evaluation of patients presenting with knee pain and demonstrate their differential diagnosis.

Abstract

Knee pain is a common presenting complaint with many possible causes. An awareness of certain patterns can help the family physician identify the underlying cause more efficiently. Teenage girls and young women are more likely to have patellar tracking problems such as patellar subluxation and patellofemoral pain syndrome, whereas teenage boys and young men are more likely to have knee extensor mechanism problems such as tibial apophysitis (Osgood-Schlatter lesion) and patellar tendonitis. Referred pain resulting from hip joint pathology, such as slipped capital femoral epiphysis, also may cause knee pain. Active patients are more likely to have acute ligamentous sprains and overuse injuries such as pes anserine bursitis and medial plica syndrome. Trauma may result in acute ligamentous rupture or fracture, leading to acute knee joint swelling and hemarthrosis. Septic arthritis may develop in patients of any age, but crystal-induced inflammatory arthropathy is more likely in adults. Osteoarthritis of the knee joint is common in older adults. (Am Fam Physician 2003;68:917-22. Copyright� 2003 American Academy of Family Physicians.)

Introduction

Determining the underlying cause of knee pain can be difficult, in part because of the extensive differential diagnosis. As discussed in part I of this two-part article,1 the family physician should be familiar with knee anatomy and common mechanisms of injury, and a detailed history and focused physical examination can narrow possible causes. The patient�s age and the anatomic site of the pain are two factors that can be important in achieving an accurate diagnosis (Tables 1 and 2). �

Table 1 Common Causes of Knee Pain

Children and Adolescents

Children and adolescents who present with knee pain are likely to have one of three common conditions: patellar subluxation, tibial apophysitis, or patellar tendonitis. Additional diagnoses to consider in children include slipped capital femoral epiphysis and septic arthritis.

Patellar Subluxation

Patellar subluxation is the most likely diagnosis in a teenage girl who presents with giving-way episodes of the knee.2 This injury occurs more often in girls and young women because of an increased quadriceps angle (Q angle), usually greater than 15 degrees.

Patellar apprehension is elicited by subluxing the patella laterally, and a mild effusion is usually present. Moderate to severe knee swelling may indicate hemarthrosis, which suggests patellar dislocation with osteochondral fracture and bleeding.

Tibial Apophysitis

A teenage boy who presents with anterior knee pain localized to the tibial tuberosity is likely to have tibial apophysitis or Osgood- Schlatter lesion3,4 (Figure 1).5 The typical patient is a 13- or 14-year-old boy (or a 10- or 11-year-old girl) who has recently gone through a growth spurt.

The patient with tibial apophysitis generally reports waxing and waning of knee pain for a period of months. The pain worsens with�squatting, walking up or down stairs, or forceful contractions of the quadriceps muscle. This overuse apophysitis is exacerbated by jumping and hurdling because repetitive hard landings place excessive stress on the insertion of the patellar tendon.

On physical examination, the tibial tuberosity is tender and swollen and may feel warm. The knee pain is reproduced with the resisted active extension or passive hyperflexion of the knee. No effusion is present. Radiographs are usually negative; rarely, they show avulsion of the apophysis at the tibial tuberosity. However, the physician must not mistake the normal appearance of the tibial apophysis for an avulsion fracture. �

Table 2 Differential Diagnosis of Knee Pain

Figure 1 Anterior View of the Structures of the Knee

Patellar Tendonitis

Jumper�s knee (irritation and inflammation of the patellar tendon) most commonly occurs in teenage boys, particularly during a growth spurt2 (Figure 1).5 The patient reports vague anterior knee pain that has persisted for months and worsens after activities such as walking down stairs or running.

On physical examination, the patellar tendon is tender, and the pain is reproduced by resisted knee extension. There is usually no effusion. Radiographs are not indicated.

Slipped Capital Femoral Epiphysis

A number of pathologic conditions result in referral of pain to the knee. For example, the possibility of slipped capital femoral epiphysis must be considered in children and teenagers who present with knee pain.6 The patient with this condition usually reports poorly localized knee pain and no history of knee trauma.

The typical patient with slipped capital femoral epiphysis is overweight and sits on the examination table with the affected hip slightly flexed and externally rotated. The knee examination is normal, but hip pain is elicited with passive internal rotation or extension of the affected hip.

Radiographs typically show displacement of the epiphysis of the femoral head. However, negative radiographs do not rule out the diagnosis in patients with typical clinical findings. Computed tomographic (CT) scanning is indicated in these patients.

Osteochondritis Dissecans

Osteochondritis dissecans is an intra-articular osteochondrosis of unknown etiology that is characterized by degeneration and recalcification of articular cartilage and underlying bone. In the knee, the medial femoral condyle is most commonly affected.7

The patient reports vague, poorly localized knee pain, as well as morning stiffness or recurrent effusion. If a loose body is present, mechanical symptoms of locking or catching of the knee joint also may be reported. On physical examination, the patient may demonstrate quadriceps atrophy or tenderness along the involved chondral surface. A mild joint effusion may be present.7

Plain-film radiographs may demonstrate the osteochondral lesion or a loose body in the knee joint. If osteochondritis dissecans is suspected, recommended radiographs include anteroposterior, posteroanterior tunnel, lateral, and Merchant�s views. Osteochondral lesions at the lateral aspect of the medial femoral condyle may be visible only on the posteroanterior tunnel view. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is highly sensitive in detecting these abnormalities and is indicated in patients with a suspected osteochondral lesion.7 �

Dr Jimenez White Coat

A knee injury caused by sports injuries, automobile accidents, or an underlying condition, among other causes, can affect the cartilage, tendons and ligaments which form the knee joint itself. The location of the knee pain can differ according to the structure involved, also, the symptoms can vary. The entire knee may become painful and swollen as a result of inflammation or infection, whereas a torn meniscus or fracture may cause symptoms in the affected region. Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight

Adults

Overuse Syndromes

Anterior Knee Pain. Patients with patellofemoral pain syndrome (chondromalacia patellae) typically present with a vague history of mild to moderate anterior knee pain that usually occurs after prolonged periods of sitting (the so-called �theater sign�).8 Patellofemoral pain syndrome is a common cause of anterior knee pain in women.

On physical examination, a slight effusion may be present, along with patellar crepitus on the range of motion. The patient�s pain may be reproduced by applying direct pressure to the anterior aspect of the patella. Patellar tenderness may be elicited by subluxing the patella medially or laterally and palpating the superior and inferior facets of the patella. Radiographs usually are not indicated.

Medial Knee Pain. One frequently overlooked diagnosis is medial plica syndrome. The plica, a redundancy of the joint synovium medially, can become inflamed with repetitive overuse.4,9 The patient presents with acute onset of medial knee pain after a marked increase in usual activities. On physical examination, a tender, mobile nodularity is present at the medial aspect of the knee, just anterior to the joint line. There is no joint effusion, and the remainder of the knee examination is normal. Radiographs are not indicated.

Pes anserine bursitis is another possible cause of medial knee pain. The tendinous insertion of the sartorius, gracilis, and semitendinosus muscles at the anteromedial aspect of the proximal tibia forms the pes anserine bursa.9 The bursa can become inflamed as a result of overuse or a direct contusion. Pes�anserine bursitis can be confused easily with a medial collateral ligament sprain or, less commonly, osteoarthritis of the medial compartment of the knee. �

The patient with pes anserine bursitis reports pain at the medial aspect of the knee. This pain may be worsened by repetitive flexion and extension. On physical examination, tenderness is present at the medial aspect of the knee, just posterior and distal to the medial joint line. No knee joint effusion is present, but there may be slight swelling at the insertion of the medial hamstring muscles. Valgus stress testing in the supine position or resisted knee flexion in the prone position may reproduce the pain. Radiographs are usually not indicated.

Lateral Knee Pain. Excessive friction between the iliotibial band and the lateral femoral condyle can lead to iliotibial band tendonitis.9 This overuse syndrome commonly occurs in runners and cyclists, although it may develop in any person subsequent to activity involving repetitive knee flexion. The tightness of the iliotibial band, excessive foot pronation, genu varum, and tibial torsion are predisposing factors.

The patient with iliotibial band tendonitis reports pain at the lateral aspect of the knee joint. The pain is aggravated by activity, particularly running downhill and climbing stairs. On physical examination, tenderness is present at the lateral epicondyle of the femur, approximately 3 cm proximal to the joint line. Soft tissue swelling and crepitus also may be present, but there is no joint effusion. Radiographs are not indicated.

Noble�s test is used to reproduce the pain in iliotibial band tendonitis. With the patient in a supine position, the physician places a thumb over the lateral femoral epicondyle as the�patient repeatedly flexes and extends the knee. Pain symptoms are usually most prominent with the knee at 30 degrees of flexion.

Popliteus tendonitis is another possible cause of lateral knee pain. However, this condition is fairly rare.10

Trauma

Anterior Cruciate Ligament Sprain. Injury to the anterior cruciate ligament usually occurs because of noncontact deceleration forces, as when a runner plants one foot and sharply turns in the opposite direction. Resultant valgus stress on the knee leads to anterior displacement of the tibia and sprain or rupture of the ligament.11 The patient usually reports hearing or feeling a �pop� at the time of the injury and must cease activity or competition immediately. Swelling of the knee within two hours after the injury indicates rupture of the ligament and consequent hemarthrosis.

On physical examination, the patient has a moderate to severe joint effusion that limits the range of motion. The anterior drawer test may be positive, but can be negative because of hemarthrosis and guarding by the hamstring muscles. The Lachman test should be positive and is more reliable than the anterior drawer test (see text and Figure 3 in part I of the article1).

Radiographs are indicated to detect possible tibial spine avulsion fracture. MRI of the knee is indicated as part of a presurgical evaluation.

Medial Collateral Ligament Sprain. Injury to the medial collateral ligament is fairly common and is usually the result of acute trauma. The patient reports a misstep or collision that places valgus stress on the knee, followed by the immediate onset of pain and swelling at the medial aspect of the knee.11

On physical examination, the patient with medial collateral ligament injury has point tenderness at the medial joint line. Valgus stress testing of the knee flexed to 30 degrees reproduces the pain (see text and Figure 4 in part I of this article1). A clearly defined endpoint on valgus stress testing indicates a grade 1�or grade 2 sprain, whereas complete medial instability indicates full rupture of the ligament (grade 3 sprain).

Lateral Collateral Ligament Sprain. Injury of the lateral collateral ligament is much less common than the injury of the medial collateral ligament. Lateral collateral ligament sprain usually results from varus stress to the knee, as occurs when a runner plants one foot and then turns toward the ipsilateral knee.2 The patient reports acute onset of lateral knee pain that requires prompt cessation of activity.

On physical examination, point tenderness is present at the lateral joint line. Instability or pain occurs with varus stress testing of the knee flexed to 30 degrees (see text and Figure 4 in part I of this article1). Radiographs are not usually indicated.

Meniscal Tear. The meniscus can be torn acutely with a sudden twisting injury of the knee, such as may occur when a runner suddenly changes direction.11,12 Meniscal tear also may occur in association with a prolonged degenerative process, particularly in a patient with an anterior cruciate ligament-deficient knee. The patient usually reports recurrent knee pain and episodes of catching or locking of the knee joint, especially with squatting or twisting of the knee.

On physical examination, a mild effusion is usually present, and there is tenderness at the medial or lateral joint line. Atrophy of the vastus medialis obliquus portion of the quadriceps muscle also may be noticeable. The McMurray test may be positive (see Figure 5 in part I of this article1), but a negative test does not eliminate the possibility of a meniscal tear.

Plain-film radiographs usually are negative and seldom are indicated. MRI is the radiologic test of choice because it demonstrates most significant meniscal tears.

Infection

Infection of the knee joint may occur in patients of any age but is more common in those whose immune system has been weakened by cancer, diabetes mellitus, alcoholism,�acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, or corticosteroid therapy. The patient with septic arthritis reports abrupt onset of pain and swelling of the knee with no antecedent trauma.13

On physical examination, the knee is warm, swollen, and exquisitely tender. Even slight motion of the knee joint causes intense pain.

Arthrocentesis reveals turbid synovial fluid. Analysis of the fluid yields a white blood cell count (WBC) higher than 50,000 per mm3 (50 ? 109 per L), with more than 75 percent (0.75) polymorphonuclear cells, an elevated protein content (greater than 3 g per dL [30 g per L]), and a low glucose concentration (more than 50 percent lower than the serum glucose concentration).14 Gram stain of the fluid may demonstrate the causative organism. Common pathogens include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus species, Haemophilus influenza, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae.

Hematologic studies show an elevated WBC, an increased number of immature polymorphonuclear cells (i.e., a left shift), and an elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate (usually greater than 50 mm per hour).

Older Adults

Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis of the knee joint is a common problem after 60 years of age. The patient presents with knee pain that is aggravated by weight-bearing activities and relieved by rest.15 The patient has no systemic symptoms but usually awakens with morning stiffness that dissipates somewhat with activity. In addition to chronic joint stiffness and pain, the patient may report episodes of acute synovitis.

Findings on physical examination include decreased range of motion, crepitus, a mild joint effusion, and palpable osteophytic changes at the knee joint.

When osteoarthritis is suspected, recommended radiographs include weight-bearing anteroposterior and posteroanterior tunnel views, as well as non-weight-bearing Merchants and lateral views. Radiographs show�joint-space narrowing, subchondral bony sclerosis, cystic changes, and hypertrophic osteophyte formation.

Crystal-Induced Inflammatory Arthropathy

Acute inflammation, pain, and swelling in the absence of trauma suggest the possibility of a crystal-induced inflammatory arthropathy such as gout or pseudogout.16,17 Gout commonly affects the knee. In this arthropathy, sodium urate crystals precipitate in the knee joint and cause an intense inflammatory response. In pseudogout, calcium pyrophosphate crystals are the causative agents.

On physical examination, the knee joint is erythematous, warm, tender, and swollen. Even minimal range of motion is exquisitely painful.

Arthrocentesis reveals clear or slightly cloudy synovial fluid. Analysis of the fluid yields a WBC count of 2,000 to 75,000 per mm3 (2 to 75 ? 109 per L), a high protein content (greater than 32 g per dL [320 g per L]), and a glucose concentration that is approximately 75 percent of the serum glucose con- centration.14 Polarized-light microscopy of the synovial fluid displays negatively birefringent rods in the patient with gout and positively birefringent rhomboids in the patient with pseudogout.

Popliteal Cyst

The popliteal cyst (Baker�s cyst) is the most common synovial cyst of the knee. It originates from the posteromedial aspect of the knee joint at the level of the gastrocnemio-semimembranous bursa. The patient reports insidious onset of mild to moderate pain in the popliteal area of the knee.

On physical examination, palpable fullness is present at the medial aspect of the popliteal area, at or near the origin of the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle. The McMurray test may be positive if the medial meniscus is injured. Definitive diagnosis of a popliteal cyst may be made with arthrography, ultrasonography, CT scanning, or, less commonly, MRI.

The authors indicate that they do not have any conflicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported.

In conclusion, although the knee is the largest joint in the human body where the structures of the lower extremities meet, including the femur, the tibia, the patella, and many other soft tissues, the knee can easily suffer damage or injury and result in knee pain. Knee pain is one of the most common complaints among the general population, however, it commonly occurs in athletes. Sports injuries, slip-and-fall accidents, and automobile accidents, among other causes, can lead to knee pain.

As described in the article above, diagnosis is essential towards determining the best treatment approach for each type of knee injury, according to their underlying cause. While the location and the severity of the knee injury may vary depending on the cause of the health issue, knee pain is the most common symptom. Treatment options, such as chiropractic care and physical therapy, can help treat knee pain. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal health issues. To discuss the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at�915-850-0900�.

Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �

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Additional Topic Discussion: Relieving Knee Pain without Surgery

Knee pain is a well-known symptom which can occur due to a variety of knee injuries and/or conditions, including�sports injuries. The knee is one of the most complex joints in the human body as it is made-up of the intersection of four bones, four ligaments, various tendons, two menisci, and cartilage. According to the American Academy of Family Physicians, the most common causes of knee pain include patellar subluxation, patellar tendinitis or jumper’s knee, and Osgood-Schlatter disease. Although knee pain is most likely to occur in people over 60 years old, knee pain can also occur in children and adolescents. Knee pain can be treated at home following the RICE methods, however, severe knee injuries may require immediate medical attention, including chiropractic care.

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References
1. Calmbach WL, Hutchens M. Evaluation of patients presenting with knee pain: part I. History, physical examination, radiographs, and laboratory tests. Am Fam Physician 2003;68:907-12.
2. Walsh WM. Knee injuries. In: Mellion MB, Walsh WM, Shelton GL, eds. The team physician�s hand- book. 2d ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1990:554-78.
3. Dunn JF. Osgood-Schlatter disease. Am Fam Physi- cian 1990;41:173-6.
4. Stanitski CL. Anterior knee pain syndromes in the adolescent. Instr Course Lect 1994;43:211-20.
5. Tandeter HB, Shvartzman P, Stevens MA. Acute knee injuries: use of decision rules for selective radiograph ordering. Am Fam Physician 1999;60: 2599-608.
6. Waters PM, Millis MB. Hip and pelvic injuries in the young athlete. In: DeLee J, Drez D, Stanitski CL, eds. Orthopaedic sports medicine: principles and practice. Vol. III. Pediatric and adolescent sports medicine. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1994:279-93.
7. Schenck RC Jr, Goodnight JM. Osteochondritis dis- secans. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1996;78:439-56.
8. Ruffin MT 5th, Kiningham RB. Anterior knee pain: the challenge of patellofemoral syndrome. Am Fam Physician 1993;47:185-94.
9. Cox JS, Blanda JB. Peripatellar pathologies. In: DeLee J, Drez D, Stanitski CL, eds. Orthopaedic sports medicine: principles and practice. Vol. III. Pediatric and adolescent sports medicine. Philadel- phia: Saunders, 1994:1249-60.
10. Petsche TS, Selesnick FH. Popliteus tendinitis: tips for diagnosis and management. Phys Sportsmed 2002;30(8):27-31.
11. Micheli LJ, Foster TE. Acute knee injuries in the immature athlete. Instr Course Lect 1993;42:473- 80.
12. Smith BW, Green GA. Acute knee injuries: part II. Diagnosis and management. Am Fam Physician 1995;51:799-806.
13. McCune WJ, Golbus J. Monarticular arthritis. In: Kelley WN, ed. Textbook of rheumatology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1997:371-80.
14. Franks AG Jr. Rheumatologic aspects of knee dis- orders. In: Scott WN, ed. The knee. St. Louis: Mosby, 1994:315-29.
15. Brandt KD. Management of osteoarthritis. In: Kel- ley WN, ed. Textbook of rheumatology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1997:1394-403.
16. Kelley WN, Wortmann RL. Crystal-associated syn- ovitis. In: Kelley WN, ed. Textbook of rheumatol- ogy. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1997:1313- 51. 1
7. Reginato AJ, Reginato AM. Diseases associated with deposition of calcium pyrophosphate or hy- droxyapatite. In: Kelley WN, ed. Textbook of rheumatology. 5th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 1997:1352-67.
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Heel Spurs Treatment | Video

Heel Spurs Treatment | Video

Blanca suffered from heel spurs as a result of her occupation as a registered nurse. Her painful symptoms made it challenging for her to accomplish her daily tasks, both in the workplace and in her everyday life. Due to her unbearable heel spurs, Blanca considered finding a new job until she found Dr. Alex Jimenez, doctor of chiropractic. Blanca highly recommends Dr. Alex Jimenez as the non-surgical choice for heel spurs, among other sports injuries and health issues.

Heel Spurs Treatment

A heel spur is a health issue which occurs when a bony-like expansion, known as a calcium deposit, develops between the heel arch and bone of the foot. Heel spurs frequently start in front of the heels and finally affect different elements of the foot. Indicators of heel spurs can include pain, soreness, swelling, and inflammation in the front of the foot. The affected area may also feel hot to the touch. The indicators can also spread to the back of the foot. Finally, a tiny bony protrusion could be observable if left untreated.

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Evaluation of Patients Presenting with Knee Pain: Part I. History, Physical Examination, Radiographs, and Laboratory Tests

Evaluation of Patients Presenting with Knee Pain: Part I. History, Physical Examination, Radiographs, and Laboratory Tests

Knee pain is a common health issue among athletes and the general population alike. Although symptoms of knee pain can be debilitating and frustrating, knee pain is often a very treatable health issue. The knee is a complex structure made up of three bones: the lower section of the thighbone, the upper region of the shinbone, and the kneecap.

Powerful soft tissues, such as the tendons and ligaments of the knee as well as the cartilage beneath the kneecap and between the bones, hold these structures together in order to stabilize and support the knee. However, a variety of injuries and/or conditions can ultimately lead to knee pain. The purpose of the article below is to evaluate patients with knee pain.

Abstract

Family physicians frequently encounter patients with knee pain. Accurate diagnosis requires a knowledge of knee anatomy, common pain patterns in knee injuries, and features of frequently encountered causes of knee pain, as well as specific physical examination skills. The history should include characteristics of the patient�s pain, mechanical symptoms (locking, popping, giving way), joint effusion (timing, amount, recurrence), and mechanism of injury. The physical examination should include careful inspection of the knee, palpation for point tenderness, assessment of joint effusion, range-of-motion testing, evaluation of ligaments for injury or laxity, and assessment of the menisci. Radiographs should be obtained in patients with isolated patellar tenderness or tenderness at the head of the fibula, inability to bear weight or flex the knee to 90 degrees, or age greater than 55 years. (Am Fam Physician 2003; 68:907-12. Copyright� 2003 American Academy of Family Physicians.)

Introduction

Knee pain accounts for approximately one-third of musculoskeletal problems seen in primary care settings. This complaint is most prevalent in�physically active patients, with as many as 54 percent of athletes having some degree of knee pain each year.1 Knee pain can be a source of significant disability, restricting the ability to work or perform activities of daily living.

The knee is a complex structure (Figure 1),2 and its evaluation can present a challenge to the family physician. The differential diagnosis of knee pain is extensive but can be narrowed with a detailed history, a focused physical examination and, when indicated, the selective use of appropriate imaging and laboratory studies. Part I of this two-part article provides a systematic approach to evaluating the knee, and part II3 discusses the differential diagnosis of knee pain.

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History

Pain Characteristics

The patient�s description of knee pain is helpful in focusing the differential diagnosis.4 It is important to clarify the characteristics of the pain, including its onset (rapid or insidious), location (anterior, medial, lateral, or posterior knee), duration, severity, and quality (e.g., dull, sharp, achy). Aggravating and alleviating factors also need to be identified. If knee pain is caused by an acute injury, the physician needs to know whether the patient was able to continue activity or bear weight after the injury or was forced to cease activities immediately.

 

Mechanical Symptoms

The patient should be asked about mechan- ical symptoms, such as locking, popping, or giving way of the knee. A history of locking episodes suggests a meniscal tear. A sensation of popping at the time of injury suggests liga- mentous injury, probably complete rupture of a ligament (third-degree tear). Episodes of giving way are consistent with some degree of knee instability and may indicate patellar sub- luxation or ligamentous rupture.

Effusion

The timing and amount of joint effusion are important clues to the diagnosis. Rapid onset (within two hours) of a large, tense effusion suggests rupture of the anterior cru- ciate ligament or fracture of the tibial plateau with resultant hemarthrosis, whereas slower onset (24 to 36 hours) of a mild to moderate effusion is consistent with meniscal injury or ligamentous sprain. Recurrent knee effusion after activity is consistent with meniscal injury.

Mechanism of Injury

The patient should be questioned about specific details of the injury. It is important to know if the patient sustained a direct blow to the knee, if the foot was planted at the time of injury, if the patient was decelerating or stopping suddenly, if the patient was landing from a jump, if there was a twisting component to the injury, and if hyperextension occurred.

A direct blow to the knee can cause serious injury. The anterior force applied to the proximal tibia with the knee in flexion (e.g., when the knee hits the dashboard in an automobile accident) can cause injury to the posterior cruciate ligament. The medial collateral ligament is most commonly injured as a result of direct lateral force to the knee (e.g., clipping in football); this force creates a val- gus load on the knee joint and can result in rupture of the medial collateral ligament. Conversely, a medial blow that creates a varus load can injure the lateral collateral ligament.

Noncontact forces also are an important cause of knee injury. Quick stops and sharp cuts or turns create significant deceleration forces that can sprain or rupture the anterior cruciate ligament. Hyperextension can result in injury to the anterior cruciate ligament or posterior cruciate ligament. Sudden twisting or pivoting motions create shear forces that can injure the meniscus. A combination of forces can occur simultaneously, causing injury to multiple structures.

 

Medical History

A history of knee injury or surgery is important. The patient should be asked about previous attempts to treat knee pain, including the use of medications, supporting devices, and physical therapy. The physician also should ask if the patient has a history of�gout, pseudogout, rheumatoid arthritis, or other degenerative joint diseases.

Dr Jimenez White Coat

Knee pain is a common health issue which can be caused by sports injuries, automobile accident injuries, or by an underlying health issue, such as arthritis. The most common symptoms of knee injury include pain and discomfort, swelling, inflammation and stiffness. Because treatment for knee pain varies according to the cause, it’s essential for the individual to receive proper diagnosis for their symptoms. Chiropractic care is a safe and effective, alternative treatment approach which can help treat knee pain, among other health issues.

Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight

Physical Examination

Inspection and Palpation

The physician begins by comparing the painful knee with the asymptomatic knee and inspecting the injured knee for erythema, swelling, bruising, and discoloration. The mus- culature should be symmetric bilaterally. In particular, the vastus medialis obliquus of the quadriceps should be evaluated to determine if it appears normal or shows signs of atrophy.

The knee is then palpated and checked for pain, warmth, and effusion. Point tenderness should be sought, particularly at the patella, tibial tubercle, patellar tendon, quadriceps tendon, anterolateral and anteromedial joint line, medial joint line, and lateral joint line. Moving the patient�s knee through a short arc of motion helps identify the joint lines. Range of motion should be assessed by extending and flexing the knee as far as possible (normal range of motion: extension, zero degrees; flex- ion, 135 degrees).5

Patellofemoral Assessment

An evaluation for effusion should be conducted with the patient supine and the injured knee in extension. The suprapatellar pouch should be milked to determine whether an effusion is present.

Patellofemoral tracking is assessed by observing the patella for smooth motion while the patient contracts the quadriceps muscle. The presence of crepitus should be noted during palpation of the patella.

The quadriceps angle (Q angle) is determined by drawing one line from the anterior superior iliac spine through the center of the patella and a second line from the center of the patella through the tibial tuberosity (Figure 2).6 A Q angle greater than 15 degrees is a predisposing factor for patellar subluxation (i.e., if the Q angle is increased, forceful contraction of the quadriceps muscle can cause the patella to sublux laterally).

A patellar apprehension test is then performed. With fingers placed at the medial aspect of the patella, the physician attempts to sublux the patella laterally. If this maneuver reproduces the patient�s pain or a giving-way sensation, patellar subluxation is the likely cause of the patient�s symptoms.7 Both the superior and inferior patellar facets should be palpated, with the patella subluxed first medially and then laterally.

 

Cruciate Ligaments

Anterior Cruciate Ligament. For the anterior drawer test, the patient assumes a supine position with the injured knee flexed to 90 degrees. The physician fixes the patient�s foot in slight external rotation (by sitting on the foot) and then places thumbs at the tibial tubercle and fingers at the posterior calf. With the patient�s hamstring muscles relaxed, the physician pulls anteriorly and assesses anterior displacement of the tibia (anterior drawer sign).

The Lachman test is another means of assessing the integrity of the anterior cruciate ligament (Figure 3).7 The test is performed with the patient in a supine position and the injured knee flexed to 30 degrees. The physician stabilizes the distal femur with one hand, grasps the proximal tibia in the other hand, and then attempts to sublux the tibia anteriorly. Lack of a clear end point indicates a positive Lachman test.

Posterior Cruciate Ligament. For the posterior drawer test, the patient assumes a supine position with knees flexed to 90 degrees. While standing at the side of the examination table, the physician looks for posterior displacement of the tibia (posterior sag sign).7,8 Next, the physician fixes the patient�s foot in neutral rotation (by sitting on the foot), positions thumbs at the tibial tubercle, and places fingers at the posterior calf. The physician then pushes posteriorly and assesses for posterior displacement of the tibia.

 

Collateral Ligaments

Medial Collateral Ligament. The valgus stress test is performed with the patient�s leg slightly abducted. The physician places one hand at the lateral aspect of the knee joint and the other hand at the medial aspect of the distal tibia. Next, valgus stress is applied to the knee at both zero degrees (full extension) and 30 degrees of flexion (Figure 4)7. With the knee at zero degrees (i.e., in full extension), the posterior cruciate ligament and the articulation of the femoral condyles with the tibial plateau should stabilize the knee; with the knee at 30 degrees of flexion, application of valgus stress assesses the laxity or integrity of the medial collateral ligament.

Lateral Collateral Ligament. To perform the varus stress test, the physician places one hand at the medial aspect of the patient�s knee and the other hand at the lateral aspect of the distal fibula. Next, varus stress is applied to the knee, first at full extension (i.e., zero degrees), then with the knee flexed to 30 degrees (Figure 4).7 A firm end point indicates that the collateral ligament is intact, whereas a soft or absent end point indicates complete rupture (third-degree tear) of the ligament.

Menisci

Patients with injury to the menisci usually demonstrate tenderness at the joint line. The McMurray test is performed with the patient lying supine9 (Figure 5). The test has been described variously in the literature, but the author suggests the following technique.

The physician grasps the patient�s heel with one hand and the knee with the other hand. The physician�s thumb is at the lateral joint line, and fingers are at the medial joint line. The physician then flexes the patient�s knee maximally. To test the lateral meniscus, the tibia is rotated internally, and the knee is extended from maximal flexion to about 90 degrees; added compression to the lateral meniscus can be produced by applying valgus stress across the knee joint while the knee is�being extended. To test the medial meniscus, the tibia is rotated externally, and the knee is extended from maximal flexion to about 90 degrees; added compression to the medial meniscus can be produced by placing varus stress across the knee joint while the knee is degrees of flexion. A positive test produces a thud or a click, or causes pain in a reproducible portion of the range of motion.

Because most patients with knee pain have soft tissue injuries, plain-film radiographs generally are not indicated. The Ottawa knee rules are a useful guide for ordering radiographs of the knee10,11.

If radiographs are required, three views are usually sufficient: anteroposterior view, lateral view, and Merchant�s view (for the patellofemoral joint).7,12 Teenage patients who report chronic knee pain and recurrent knee effusion require a notch or tunnel view (posteroanterior view with the knee flexed to 40 to 50 degrees). This view is necessary to detect radiolucencies of the femoral condyles (most�commonly the medial femoral condyle), which indicate the presence of osteochondritis dissecans.13

Radiographs should be closely inspected for signs of fracture, particularly involving the patella, tibial plateau, tibial spines, proximal fibula, and femoral condyles. If osteoarthritis is suspected, standing weight-bearing radiographs should be obtained.

 

Laboratory Studies

The presence of warmth, exquisite tenderness, painful effusion, and marked pain with even slight range of motion of the knee joint is consistent with septic arthritis or acute inflammatory arthropathy. In addition to obtaining a complete blood count with differential and an erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), arthro- centesis should be performed. The joint fluid should be sent to a laboratory for a cell count with differential, glucose and protein measure- ments, bacterial culture and sensitivity, and polarized light microscopy for crystals.

Because a tense, painful, swollen knee may present an unclear clinical picture, arthrocentesis may be required to differentiate simple effusion from hemarthrosis or occult osteochondral fracture.4 A simple joint effusion produces clear, straw-colored transudative fluid, as in a knee sprain or chronic meniscal injury. Hemarthrosis is caused by a tear of the anterior cruciate ligament, a fracture or, less commonly, an acute tear of the outer portion of the meniscus. An osteochondral fracture causes hemarthrosis, with fat globules noted in the aspirate.

Rheumatoid arthritis may involve the knee joint. Hence, serum ESR and rheumatoid factor testing are indicated in selected patients.

The authors indicate that they do not have any conflicts of interest. Sources of funding: none reported.

In conclusion, knee pain is a common health issue which occurs due to a variety of injuries and/or conditions, such as sports injuries, automobile accidents, and arthritis, among other problems. Treatment of knee pain depends largely on the source of the symptoms. Therefore, it is essential for the individual to seek immediate medical attention to receive a diagnosis.

Chiropractic care is an alternative treatment option which focuses on the treatment of a variety of injuries and/or conditions associated with the musculoskeletal and nervous system. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal health issues. To discuss the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at�915-850-0900�.

Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez

Green Call Now Button H .png

 

Additional Topic Discussion: Relieving Knee Pain without Surgery

Knee pain is a well-known symptom which can occur due to a variety of knee injuries and/or conditions, including�sports injuries. The knee is one of the most complex joints in the human body as it is made-up of the intersection of four bones, four ligaments, various tendons, two menisci, and cartilage. According to the American Academy of Family Physicians, the most common causes of knee pain include patellar subluxation, patellar tendinitis or jumper’s knee, and Osgood-Schlatter disease. Although knee pain is most likely to occur in people over 60 years old, knee pain can also occur in children and adolescents. Knee pain can be treated at home following the RICE methods, however, severe knee injuries may require immediate medical attention, including chiropractic care.

 

blog picture of cartoon paper boy

EXTRA EXTRA | IMPORTANT TOPIC: El Paso, TX Chiropractor Recommended

 

 

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References

1. Rosenblatt RA, Cherkin DC, Schneeweiss R, Hart LG. The content of ambulatory medical care in the United States. An interspecialty comparison. N Engl J Med 1983;309:892-7.

2. Tandeter HB, Shvartzman P, Stevens MA. Acute knee injuries: use of decision rules for selective radiograph ordering. Am Fam Physician 1999;60: 2599-608.

3. Calmbach WL, Hutchens M. Evaluation of patients presenting with knee pain: part II. Differential diag- nosis. Am Fam Physician 2003;68:917-22

4. Bergfeld J, Ireland ML, Wojtys EM, Glaser V. Pin- pointing the cause of acute knee pain. Patient Care 1997;31(18):100-7.

5. Magee DJ. Knee. In: Orthopedic physical assessment. 4th ed. Philadelphia: Saunders, 2002:661-763.

6. Juhn MS. Patellofemoral pain syndrome: a review and guidelines for treatment. Am Fam Physician 1999;60:2012-22.

7. Smith BW, Green GA. Acute knee injuries: part I. History and physical examination. Am Fam Physi- cian 1995;51:615-21.

8. Walsh WM. Knee injuries. In: Mellion MB, Walsh WM, Shelton GL, eds. The team physician�s hand- book. 2d ed. St. Louis: Mosby, 1997:554-78.

9. McMurray TP. The semilunar cartilage. Br J Surg 1942;29:407-14.

10. Stiell IG, Wells GA, Hoag RH, Sivilotti ML, Cacciotti TF, Verbeek PR, et al. Implementation of the Ottawa knee rule for the use of radiography in acute knee injuries. JAMA 1997;278:2075-9.

11. Stiell IG, Greenberg GH, Wells GA, McKnight RD, Cwinn AA, Caciotti T, et al. Derivation of a decision rule for the use of radiography in acute knee injuries. Ann Emerg Med 1995;26:405-13.

12. Sartoris DJ, Resnick D. Plain film radiography: rou- tine and specialized techniques and projections. In: Resnick D, ed. Diagnosis of bone and joint disor- ders. 3d ed. Philadelphia: Saunders:1-40.

13. Schenck RC Jr, Goodnight JM. Osteochondritis dis- secans. J Bone Joint Surg [Am] 1996;78:439-56.

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