Nutrition�Abstract: A number of factors contribute to success in sport, and diet is a key component. An athlete�s dietary requirements depend on several aspects, including the sport, the athlete�s goals, the environment, and practical issues. The importance of individualized dietary advice has been increasingly recognized, including day-to-day dietary advice and specific advice before, during, and after training and/or competition. Athletes use a range of dietary strategies to improve performance, with maximizing glycogen stores a key strategy for many. Carbohydrate intake during exercise maintains high levels of carbohydrate oxidation, prevents hypoglycemia, and has a positive effect on the central nervous system. Recent research has focused on athletes training with low carbohydrate availability to enhance metabolic adaptations, but whether this leads to an improvement in performance is unclear. The benefits of protein intake throughout the day following exercise are now well recognized. Athletes should aim to maintain adequate levels of hydration, and they should minimize fluid losses during exercise to no more than 2% of their body weight. Supplement use is widespread in athletes, with recent interest in the beneficial effects of nitrate, beta-alanine, and vitamin D on performance. However, an unregulated supplement industry and inadvertent contamination of supplements with banned substances increases the risk of a positive doping result. Although the availability of nutrition information for athletes varies, athletes will bene t from the advice of a registered dietician or nutritionist.
Introduction To The Importance & Influence Of Nutrition On Exercise
Nutrition is increasingly recognized as a key component of optimal sporting performance, with both the science and practice of sports nutrition developing rapidly.1 Recent studies have found that a planned scientific nutritional strategy (consisting of fluid, carbohydrate, sodium, and caffeine) compared with a self-chosen nutritional strategy helped non-elite runners complete a marathon run faster2 and trained cyclists complete a time trial faster.3 Whereas training has the greatest potential to increase performance, it has been estimated that consumption of a carbohydrate�electrolyte drink or relatively low doses of caffeine may improve a 40 km cycling time trial performance by 32�42 and 55�84 seconds, respectively.4
Evidence supports a range of dietary strategies in enhancing sports performance. It is likely that combining several strategies will be of greater bene t than one strategy in isolation.5 Dietary strategies to enhance performance include optimizing intakes of macronutrients, micronutrients, and fluids, including their composition and spacing throughout the day. The importance of individualized or personalized dietary advice�is becoming increasingly recognized,6 with dietary strategies varying according to the individual athlete�s sport, personal goals, and practicalities (eg, food preferences). �Athlete� includes individuals competing in a range of sport types, such as strength and power (eg, weight-lifting), team (eg, football), and endurance (eg, marathon running). The use of dietary supplements can enhance performance, provided these are used appropriately. This manuscript provides an overview of dietary strategies used by athletes, the efficacy of these strategies, availability of nutrition information to athletes, and risks associated with dietary supplement intake.
Review Of Diet Strategies Employed By Athletes
Maximizing Muscle Glycogen Stores Prior To Exercise
Carbohydrate loading aims to maximize an athlete�s muscle glycogen stores prior to endurance exercise lasting longer than 90 minutes. Benefits include delayed onset of fatigue (approximately 20%) and improvement in performance of 2%�3%.7 Initial protocols involved a depletion phase (3 days of intense training and low carbohydrate intake) followed by a loading phase (3 days of reduced training and high carbo- hydrate intake).8,9 Further research showed muscle glycogen concentrations could be enhanced to a similar level without the glycogen-depletion phase,10 and more recently, that 24 hours may be sufficient to maximize glycogen stores.11,12 Current recommendations suggest that for sustained or intermittent exercise longer than 90 minutes, athletes should consume 10�12 g of carbohydrate per kg of body mass (BM) per day in the 36�48 hours prior to exercise.13
There appears to be no advantage to increasing pre- exercise muscle glycogen content for moderate-intensity cycling or running of 60�90 minutes, as signi cant levels of glycogen remain in the muscle following exercise.7 For exercise shorter than 90 minutes, 7�12 g of carbohydrate/kg of BM should be consumed during the 24 hours preceding.13 Some14,15 but not all16 studies have shown enhanced performance of intermittent high-intensity exercise of 60�90 minutes with carbohydrate loading.
Carbohydrate eaten in the hours prior to exercise (com- pared with an overnight fast) has been shown to increase muscle glycogen stores and carbohydrate oxidation,17 extend cycle time to exhaustion,5 and improve exercise performance.5,18 Specific recommendations for exercise of longer than 60 minutes include 1�4 g of carbohydrate/kg of BM in the 1�4 hours prior.13 Most studies have not found improvements in performance from consuming low glycemic�index (GI) foods prior to exercise.19 Any metabolic or performance effects from low GI foods appear to be attenuated when carbohydrate is consumed during exercise.20,21
Carbohydrate Intake During The Event
Carbohydrate ingestion has been shown to improve performance in events lasting approximately 1 hour.6 A growing body of evidence also demonstrates beneficial effects of a carbohydrate mouth rinse on performance.22 It is thought that receptors in the oral cavity signal to the central nervous system to positively modify motor output.23
In longer events, carbohydrate improves performance primarily by preventing hypoglycemia and maintaining high levels of carbohydrate oxidation.6 The rate of exogenous carbohydrate oxidation is limited by the small intestine�s ability to absorb carbohydrate.6 Glucose is absorbed by the sodium- dependent transporter (SGLT1), which becomes saturated with an intake of approximately 1 g/minute. The simultaneous ingestion of fructose (absorbed via glucose transporter 5�[GLUT5]), enables oxidation rates of approximately 1.3 g/minute,24 with performance benefits apparent in the third hour of exercise.6 Recommendations reflect this, with 90 g of carbohydrate from multiple sources recommended for events longer than 2.5 hours, and 60 g of carbohydrate from either single or multiple sources recommended for exercise of 2�3 hours� duration (Table 1). For slower athletes exercising at a lower intensity,�carbohydrate requirements will be less due to lower carbohydrate oxidation.6 Daily training with high carbohydrate availability has been shown to increase exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates.25
The �Train-Low, Compete-High� Approach
The �train-low, compete-high� concept is training with low carbohydrate availability to promote adaptations such as�enhanced activation of cell-signaling pathways, increased mitochondrial enzyme content and activity, enhanced lipid oxidation rates, and hence improved exercise capacity.26 However, there is no clear evidence that performance is improved with this approach.27 For example, when highly trained cyclists were separated into once-daily (train-high) or twice-daily (train-low) training sessions, increases in resting muscle glycogen content were seen in the low-carbohydrate- availability group, along with other selected training adaptations.28 However, performance in a 1-hour time trial after 3 weeks of training was no different between groups. Other research has produced similar results.29 Different strategies have been suggested (eg, training after an overnight fast, training twice per day, restricting carbohydrate during recovery),26 but further research is needed to establish optimal dietary periodization plans.27
Fat As A Fuel During Endurance Exercise
There has been a recent resurgence of interest in fat as a fuel, particularly for ultra endurance exercise. A high-carbohydrate strategy inhibits fat utilization during exercise,30 which may not be beneficial due to the abundance of energy stored in the body as fat. Creating an environment that optimizes fat oxidation potentially occurs when dietary carbohydrate is reduced to a level that promotes ketosis.31 However, this strategy may impair performance of high-intensity activity, by contributing to a reduction in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and glycogenolysis. 32 The lack of performance benefits seen in studies investigating �high-fat� diets may be attributed to inadequate carbohydrate restriction and time for adaptation.31 Research into the performance effects of high fat diets continues.
Nutrition: Protein
While protein consumption prior to and during endurance and resistance exercise has been shown to enhance rates of muscle protein synthesis (MPS), a recent review found protein ingestion alongside carbohydrate during exercise does not improve time�trial performance when compared with the ingestion of adequate amounts of carbohydrate alone.33
Fluid And Electrolytes
The purpose of fluid consumption during exercise is primarily to maintain hydration and thermoregulation, thereby benefiting performance. Evidence is emerging on increased risk of oxidative stress with dehydration.34 Fluid consumption prior to exercise is recommended to ensure that the athlete is well-hydrated prior to commencing exercise.35 In addition,�carefully planned hyperhydration ( fluid overloading) prior to an event may reset fluid balance and increase fluid retention, and consequently improve heat tolerance.36 However, fluid overloading may increase the risk of hyponatremia 37 and impact negatively on performance due to feelings of fullness and the need to urinate.
Hydration requirements are closely linked to sweat loss, which is highly variable (0.5�2.0 L/hour) and dependent on type and duration of exercise, ambient temperature, and athletes� individual characteristics.35 Sodium losses linked to high temperature can be substantial, and in events of long duration or in hot temperatures, sodium must be replaced along with fluid to reduce risk of hyponatremia. 35
It has long been suggested that fluid losses greater than 2% of BM can impair performance,35 but there is controversy over the recommendation that athletes maintain BM by fluid ingestion throughout an event.37 Well-trained athletes who �drink to thirst� have been found to lose as much as 3.1% of BM with no impairment of performance in ultra-endurance events.38 Ambient temperature is important, and a review illustrated that exercise performance was preserved if loss was restricted to 1.8% and 3.2% of BM in hot and temperate conditions, respectively.39
Dietary Supplementation: Nitrates, Beta-Alanine & Vitamin D
Performance supplements shown to enhance performance include caffeine, beetroot juice, beta-alanine (BA), creatine, and bicarbonate.40 Comprehensive reviews on other supplements including caffeine, creatine, and bicarbonate can be found elsewhere.41 In recent years, research has focused on the role of nitrate, BA, and vitamin D and performance. Nitrate is most commonly provided as sodium nitrate or beetroot juice.42 Dietary nitrates are reduced (in mouth and stomach) to nitrites, and then to nitric oxide. During exercise, nitric oxide potentially influences skeletal muscle function through regulation of blood ow and glucose homeostasis, as well as mitochondrial respiration.43 During endurance exercise, nitrate supplementation has been shown to increase exercise efficiency (4%�5% reduction in VO at a steady attenuate oxidative stress.42 Similarly, a 4.2% improvement in performance was shown in a test designed to simulate a football game.44
BA is a precursor of carnosine, which is thought to have a number of performance-enhancing functions including the reduction of acidosis, regulation of calcium, and antioxidant properties.45 Supplementation with BA has been shown to�2�state; 0.9% improvement in time trials), reduce fatigue, and�augment intracellular carnosine concentration.45 A systematic review concluded that BA may increase power output and working capacity and decrease feelings of fatigue, but that there are still questions about safety. The authors suggest caution in the use of BA as an ergogenic aid.46
Vitamin D is essential for the maintenance of bone health and control of calcium homeostasis, but is also important for muscle strength,47,48 regulation of the immune system,49 and cardiovascular health.50 Thus inadequate vitamin D status has potential implications for the overall health of athletes and performance. A recent review found that the vitamin D status of most athletes reflects that of the population in their locality, with lower levels in winter, and athletes who train predominantly indoors are at greater risk of deficiency.51 There are no dietary vitamin D recommendations for athletes; however, for muscle function, bone health, and avoidance of respiratory infections, current evidence supports maintenance of serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D (circulating form) concentrations of 80�100 nmol/L.51
Diets Specific For Post Exercise
Recovery from a bout of exercise is integral to the athlete�s training regimen. Without adequate recovery of carbohydrate, protein, fluids, and electrolytes, beneficial adaptations and performance may be hampered.
Muscle Glycogen Synthesis
Consuming carbohydrates immediately post exercise to coincide with the initial rapid phase of glycogen synthesis has been used as a strategy to maximize rates of muscle glycogen synthesis. An early study found delaying feeding by 2 hours after glycogen-depleting cycling exercise reduced glycogen synthesis rates.52 However the importance of this early enhanced rate of glycogen synthesis has been questioned in the context of extended recovery periods with sufficient carbohydrate consumption. Enhancing the rate of glycogen synthesis with immediate carbohydrate consumption after exercise appears most relevant when the next exercise session is within 8 hours of the first.53,54 Feeding frequency is also irrelevant with extended recovery; by 24 hours post exercise, consumption of carbohydrate as four large meals or 16 small snacks had comparable effects on muscle glycogen storage.55
With less than 8 hours between exercise sessions, it is recommended that for maximal glycogen synthesis, 1.0�1.2 g/kg/hour is consumed for the first 4 hours, followed by resumption of daily carbohydrate requirements.13 Additional protein has been shown to enhance glycogen�synthesis rates when carbohydrate intake is suboptimal.56 The consumption of moderate to high GI foods post exercise is recommended;13 however, when either a high-GI or low-GI meal was consumed after glycogen-depleting exercise, no performance differences were seen in a 5 km cycling time trial 3 hours later.57
Muscle Protein Synthesis
An acute bout of intense endurance or resistance exercise can induce a transient increase in protein turnover, and, until feeding, protein balance remains negative. Protein consumption after exercise enhances MPS and net protein balance,58 predominantly by increasing mitochondrial protein fraction with endurance training, and myofibrillar protein fraction with resistance training.59
Only a few studies have investigated the effect of timing of protein intake post exercise. No significant difference in MPS was observed over 4 hours post exercise when a mixture of essential amino acids and sucrose was fed 1 hour versus 3 hours after resistance exercise.60 Conversely, when a protein and carbohydrate supplement was provided immediately versus 3 hours after cycling exercise, leg protein synthesis increased threefold over 3 hours.61 A meta-analysis found timed post exercise protein intake becomes less important with longer recovery periods and adequate protein intake,62 at least for resistance training.
Dose�response studies suggest approximately 20 g of high-quality protein is sufficient to maximize MPS at rest,63 following resistance,63,64 and after high-intensity aerobic exercise.65 Rate of MPS has been found to approximately triple 45�90 minutes after protein consumption at rest, and then return to baseline levels, even with continued availability of circulating essential amino acids (termed the �muscle full� effect).66 Since exercise-induced protein synthesis is elevated for 24�48 hours following resistance exercise67and 24�28 hours following high-intensity aerobic exercise,68 and feeding protein post exercise has an additive effect,58,64 then multiple feedings over the day post exercise might maximize muscle growth. In fact, feeding 20 g of whey protein every 3 hours was subsequently found to maximally stimulate muscle myofibrillar protein synthesis following resistance exercise.69,70
In resistance training, where post exercise intake of protein was balanced by protein intake later in the day, increased adaptation of muscle hypertrophy resulted in equivocal strength performance effects.71,72 Most studies have not found a subsequent bene t to aerobic performance with post exercise protein consumption.73,74 However, in two�well controlled studies in which post exercise protein intake was balanced by protein intake later in the day, improvements were seen in cycling time to exhaustion75 and in cycling sprint performance.76
Fluids And Electrolyte Balance
Fluid and electrolyte replacement after exercise can be achieved through resuming normal hydration practices. However, when euhydration is needed within 24 hours or substantial body weight has been lost (.5% of BM), a more structured response may be warranted to replace fluids and electrolytes.77
Availability Of Nutritional Information To Athletes At Varying Levels
The availability of nutrition information for athletes varies. Younger or recreational athletes are more likely to receive generalized nutritional information of poorer quality from individuals such as coaches.78 Elite athletes are more likely to have access to specialized sports-nutrition input from qualified professionals. A range of sports science and medicine support systems are in place in different countries to assist elite athletes,1 and nutrition is a key component of these services. Some countries have nutrition programs embedded within sports institutes (eg, Australia) or alternatively have National Olympic Committees that support nutrition programs (eg, United States of America).1 However, not all athletes at the elite level have access to sports-nutrition services. This may be due to financial constraints of the sport, geographical issues, and a lack of recognition of the value of a sports-nutrition service.78
Athletes eat several times per day, with snacks contributing to energy requirements.79 Dietary intake differs across sports, with endurance athletes more likely to achieve energy and carbohydrate requirements compared to athletes in weight-conscious sports.79 A review found daily intakes of carbohydrate were 7.6 g/kg and 5.7 g/kg of BM for male and female endurance athletes, respectively.80 Ten elite Kenyan runners met macronutrient recommendations but not guide- lines for fluid intake.81 A review of fluid strategies showed a wide variability of intake across sports, with several factors influencing intake, many outside the athlete�s control.82
Nutrition information may be delivered to athletes by a range of people (dietitians, nutritionists, medical practitioners, sports scientists, coaches, trainers) and from a variety of sources (nutrition education programs, sporting magazines, the media and Internet).83 Of concern is the provision of�nutrition advice from outside various professional�s scope of practice. For example, in Australia 88% of registered exercise professionals provided nutrition advice, despite many not having adequate nutrition training.84 A study of Canadian high-performance athletes from 34 sports found physicians ranked eighth and dietitians, 16th as choice of source of dietary supplement information.85
Risks Of Contravening The Doping Regulations
Supplement use is widespread in athletes.86,87 For example, 87.5% of elite athletes in Australia used dietary supplements88 and 87% of Canadian high-performance athletes took dietary supplements within the past 6 months85 (Table 2). It is difficult to compare studies due to differences in the criteria used to define dietary supplements, variations in assessing supplement intake, and disparities in the populations studied.85
Athletes take supplements for many reasons, including for proposed performance benefits, for prevention or treatment of a nutrient deficiency, for convenience, or due to fear of �missing out� by not taking a particular supplement.41
The potential benefits (eg, improved performance) of taking a dietary supplement must outweigh the risks.86,87 There are few permitted dietary supplements available that have an ergogenic effect.87,89 Dietary supplementation cannot compensate for poor food choices.87 Other concerns include lack of efficacy, safety issues (toxicity, medical concerns), negative nutrient interactions, unpleasant side effects, ethical issues, financial expense, and lack of quality control.41,86,87 Of major concern, is the consumption of prohibited substances by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA).
Inadequate regulation in the supplement industry (com- pounded by widespread Internet sales) makes it difficult for athletes to choose supplements wisely.41,86,87 In 2000�2001, a study of 634 different supplements from 13 countries found that 94 (14.8%) contained undeclared steroids, banned by WADA.90 Many contaminated supplements were routinely used by athletes (eg, vitamin and mineral supplements).86 Several studies have confirmed these findings. 41,86,89
A positive drug test in an athlete can occur with even a minute quantity of a banned substance.41,87 WADA maintains a �strict liability� policy, whereby every athlete is responsible for any substance found in their body regardless of how it got there.41,86,87,89 The World Anti-Doping Code (January 1, 2015) does recognize the issue of contaminated supplements.91 Whereas the code upholds the principle of strict liability, athletes may receive a lesser ban if they can��show �no significant fault� to demonstrate they did not intend to cheat. The updated code imposes longer bans on those who cheat intentionally, includes athlete support personnel (eg, coaches, medical staff), and has an increased focus on anti-doping education.91,99
In an effort to educate athletes about sports-supplement use, the Australian Institute of Sport�s sports-supplement program categorizes supplements according to evidence�of efficacy in performance and risk of doping outcome.40 Category A supplements have sound evidence for use and include sports foods, medical supplements, and performance supplements. Category D supplements should not be used by athletes, as they are banned or are at high risk for contamination. These include stimulants, pro-hormones and hormone boosters, growth hormone releasers, peptides, glycerol, and colostrum.40
Conclusion
Athletes are always looking for an edge to improve their performance, and there are a range of dietary strategies available. Nonetheless, dietary recommendations should be individualized for each athlete and their sport and provided by an appropriately qualified professional to ensure optimal performance. Dietary supplements should be used with caution and as part of an overall nutrition and performance plan.
Disclosure
The authors report no conflicts of interest in this work.
Kathryn L Beck1 Jasmine S Thomson2 Richard J Swift1 Pamela R von Hurst1
1School of Food and Nutrition, Massey institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Health, Massey University Albany, Auckland, 2School of Food and Nutrition, Massey institute of Food Science and Technology, College of Health, Massey University Manawatu, Palmerston North, New Zealand
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Research suggests that illness recovery and prevention improve when supported by proper nutrition and supplementation. Nevertheless, clinicians don’t often get extensive training in nutrition and nutrient supplements in osteopathic and medical school, a study of pediatric residency interns that were incoming showed.
What’s the importance of nutrition towards health and wellness?
Unsurprisingly, many patients are malnourished, are experiencing record levels of disease, and therefore are likely being treated without learning about other, less invasive but exceptionally effective treatment options.
The Power of Nutrition
When high-quality nutrition is used consistently and efficiently, it may prevent potential chronic disease, enhance cognition in people with dementia, and improve outcomes in patients getting GI and colorectal oncological surgeries, to mention a few. In addition, nutrition support is associated with length of stays and infectious complications.
Integrative and functional medicine practitioners, specialists of any discipline certified in integrative and functional medicine, are educated healthcare providers, qualified and experienced on how best to use functional nutrition to effectively prevent and even reverse chronic illness, such as fibromyalgia, as well as to support general health and wellness. Functional nutrition aims at addressing the imbalances in the body by restoring proper function through food, lifestyle and supplement interventions, restoring a patients’ health and improving the patients’ outcomes.
To get started learning about functional nutrition, many healthcare professionals learn the basics of the way functional nutrition helps their patients through an extended series of specialized courses and training. Some integrative and functional medicine resources may contains over 10 food programs which could be personalized depending on the individual condition and the patient, to provide a personalized treatment experience.
When Standard Diets Don’t Work
Despite recent improvements in nutrigenomics, the thought that a given food is going to have precisely the same impact for all individuals is still widespread. A recent study found that after ingesting identical foods, blood sugar levels could vary by up to 20 percent in the exact same person and up to 25 percent across individuals.
Likewise, another study demonstrated that individuals may have radically different sugar responses to the exact same meal. Using continuous glucose monitoring and meals that were standardized, the investigators found that identical meals led to physiologic outcomes. As a result, any strategy that grades dietary components either “good” or “poor” based on their typical postprandial glycemic responses (PPGRs) will be of small use to the respective patient.
In contrast, the exciting and relatively new field of metabolomics is now being applied in nutrigenomics research. Because the molecules which vary between meals are identified by metabolomics, researchers guess it could be utilized to determine biomarkers of disease risk and also to track effects of foods for more efficient treatment.
In an era in which more personalized data is accessible than ever before, healthcare professionals can attain incredible outcomes by using this emerging study to evaluate and treat patients according to their individual needs. But how do you develop a framework for customizing therapy programs that takes into consideration all data that is applicable?
The Institute for Functional Medicine’s foundational five-day course, Applying Functional Medicine in Clinical Practice (AFMCP), for example, joins practitioners to personalized tests and clinical instruments which can be tailored to each individual’s particular physiology, including genetics, lifestyle, and readiness to change. A variety of specialized integrative and functional medicine training programs provides healthcare professionals the tools to prescribe effective treatment programs customized to individual patients’ needs across the spectrum.
The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal injuries and conditions. To discuss options on the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 .
By Dr. Alex Jimenez
Additional Topics: Wellness
Overall health and wellness are essential towards maintaining the proper mental and physical balance in the body. From eating a balanced nutrition as well as exercising and participating in physical activities, to sleeping a healthy amount of time on a regular basis, following the best health and wellness tips can ultimately help maintain overall well-being. Eating plenty of fruits and vegetables can go a long way towards helping people become healthy.
Clinicians recognize that lifestyle changes can be difficult for patients. Research is currently helping us understand what patients actually need to have in order to produce effective and sustainable changes in their diet and physical activity.
How is nutrition and exercise effective for well-being?
Two intervention studies suggest direct access to healthy food enhance emotional well-being and metabolism respectively. When patients with chronic disease learn by performing lifestyle modification behaviors, even over a brief period of time, both their well-being and wellness improve.
Nutrition & Exercise Research Study
At a randomized controlled trial over a two-week interval, researchers investigated the effects of giving a group of young people a $10 voucher for fruits and vegetables and twice per day text-reminders versus giving yet another group of young people received the real fruits and vegetables worth $10 with no reminders.
Despite both classes consuming relatively the same amount of fruits and vegetables, such as a greater amount than ordinary even, only the group who had been given fruits and veggies flourished and showed improvements in their vitality and motivation. This study suggests that direct access to healthy food might be necessary for successful dietary modification, even if the clinician is providing “high-touch” support. Quite simply, clinicians might wish to think about exploring their patients’ access to standard meals prior to giving them other tools to help them eat better.
In a different study, over a 12-week period, a randomized controlled trial of 24 breast cancer survivors split them to either a fitness program or a management group instructed to continue their regular exercise routines. The exercise group saw increased muscle strength and endurance, as well as decreased body fat percentage, waist circumference, visceral fat area, insulin levels, leptin/adiponectin ratios, and DKK1 and SFRP1 levels. The researchers indicate that DKK1 and SFRP1 may be useful biomarkers to ascertain both long-term exercise’s advantages along with the prognosis of patients. In addition they suggest exercise might have a therapeutic advantage in those with chronic illnesses.
Fortunately, many integrative and functional medicine practitioners find innovative methods to place new science into practice, and new programs make it possible for clinicians to apply the results from studies such as these right away from the clinic. Many integrative and functional medicine practitioners offer a toolkit containing more than 200 items that help enhance patient compliance to professionals. General ill-being and chronic disorder decreases, when patients learn lifestyle modification behaviors.
The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal injuries and conditions. To discuss options on the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 .
By Dr. Alex Jimenez
Additional Topics: Wellness
Overall health and wellness are essential towards maintaining the proper mental and physical balance in the body. From eating a balanced nutrition as well as exercising and participating in physical activities, to sleeping a healthy amount of time on a regular basis, following the best health and wellness tips can ultimately help maintain overall well-being. Eating plenty of fruits and vegetables can go a long way towards helping people become healthy.
You’ve perhaps heard of functional medicine, the medical care strategy that requires a “systems” perspective of health by focusing on the sources of dysfunction in the body as well as also the interactions among genetic, environmental and lifestyle factors. Functional nutrition fits within this framework to analyze how food “functions” inside our own bodies to both provide nourishment but also to influence the body’s health (or disease) itself.
Beyond basic fuel, how does food help generate health each day?
Food is one of the most basic and potent inputs we provide our bodies, a clear and impactful message to our biochemistry. It’s one of several links between our internal and external environments. More than two thousand decades ago, the Greek physician Hippocrates offered the famous quote, “Let medicine be thy food and thy food be thy medicine.” Now it is a rallying cry for supporters of food nourishment. What should this mean for you?
Nutrition as a Part of Functional Medicine
If it comes to health care, too often we put energy, time and cash. We’ll never envision optimal health and well-being at this route. When we get to the underlying causes of our physical dysfunction (e.g. insulin resistance, high blood pressure, inflammatory conditions), we suddenly gain a panoramic view of what feeds (sometimes actually speaking) our dysfunction and that which, consequently, can nourish or excite it toward optimal operation.
Functional nutrition at its best both examines the balance of our personal dietary landscape to see how well we’re nourishing our bodies’ needs and targets specific foods that might have especially potent impact to tackle the delicate and not-so-subtle dysfunctions that we harbor.
As an example, if you have an inflammatory condition or your blood markers reveal higher than normal inflammatory amounts, you will not only need to be sure to steer clear of inflammation-promoting foods but also make the most of this anti-inflammatory effectiveness of certain foods (e.g. turmeric, omega-3’s found in fatty fish and caliber omega nutritional supplements, cruciferous vegetables, berries, etc.). Functional nutrition emphasizes that specific decisions can function to your own personal benefit and that your nutrition should get the job done for you.
Goals of Functional Nutrition
Functional nutrition should enhance your health status, improve vitality, satiety, and ability to heal from injury or illness. When our choices start to include fresh, fibrous, and minimally processed foods, our dietary patterns start to work in our favor in many respects when compared to diets of highly-processed, nutrient-poor foods. From there, proper individualized recommendations might help us incorporate targeted/therapeutic food choices that are additional.
Functional nutrition should foster resilience in spite of numerous challenges we experience as we age and accumulate stresses (i.e. physical and psychological decline, sleep deprivation, various kinds of psychological distress). Age-related functional decline is an inevitable part of the human life cycle. In the last few generations we’ve seen some of the biggest gains in average population life expectancy along with the fastest increases in debilitating chronic disease observed. For people to satisfy their quests to live a ‘better-than-average’ lifetime, they must stay more resilient than ever in the surface of the multiple stressors modern life gifts. Quality nutrition helps us avoid these conditions, and Practical Nutrition guidance/therapy can help us manage them or dial them back if we affected.
Maybe most powerful, comprehending functional nutrition can help us realign our relationship with food. When we think about food as medicine, our paradigm on eating may change. We can better appreciate the impact of our daily choices. We can examine the backdrop of these options with a different view we make the decisions we do. The range broadens to real life program, how functional nutrition can fit inside our lifestyle performance.
The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal injuries and conditions. To discuss options on the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 .
By Dr. Alex Jimenez
Additional Topics: Wellness
Overall health and wellness are essential towards maintaining the proper mental and physical balance in the body. From eating a balanced nutrition as well as exercising and participating in physical activities, to sleeping a healthy amount of time on a regular basis, following the best health and wellness tips can ultimately help maintain overall well-being. Eating plenty of fruits and vegetables can go a long way towards helping people become healthy.
Dietitians at Integrative and Functional Medicine (DIFM) is a specialty clinic group of nutrition professionals whose center philosophy centers around a holistic, personalized approach to healing and health. Members incorporate many different nutrition remedies such as brain/body modalities in clinical practice supplements and whole foods.
How is nutrition a part of integrative and functional medicine?
Integrative medicine is the practice of medicine that reaffirms the value of the connection between professional and patient, focuses on the entire individual, is informed by evidence, and makes use of all appropriate therapeutic approaches, healthcare professionals, and areas to achieve optimal health and healing.
Functional medicine addresses the underlying causes of illness utilizing a systems-oriented approach and engaging both practitioner and patient at a healing partnership. Functional medicine involves understanding complex, chronic disease’s origins, prevention, and therapy. Hallmarks of a functional medicine approach include:
Patient-centered care. The focus of functional medicine is on care boosting health beyond the absence of illness; as a positive energy. By listening to the patient and studying his or her narrative, the practitioner tailors treatments that address the unique needs of the individual and brings the individual relief.
An integrative, science-based health care strategy. Functional medicine professionals seem “upstream” to think about the intricate web of interactions in the individual’s history, physiology, and lifestyle that can cause disease. The distinctive genetic makeup of each individual is considered, combined with both internal (brain, body, and soul) and external (physical and social environment) variables that affect overall functioning.
Integrating best medical clinics. Functional medicine integrates traditional Western medical practices with what is sometimes regarded as “choice” or “integrative” medicine, creating a focus on prevention through nutrition, diet, and exercise; use of the latest diagnostic techniques; and prescribed combinations of drugs and/or botanical medicines, supplements, therapeutic diets, detoxification programs, or stress-management practices.
Functional Medicine and Nutrition
Functional medication has, for years, been the promoters and teachers of using food as medicine. According to the Institute for Functional Medicine, “functional nutrition highlights the value of top quality meals and phytonutrient diversity to deal with clinical imbalances and move people toward the maximum expression of health. Advanced nutrition evaluation and a comprehensive functional medicine based history leads to a personalized therapeutic intervention made to promote optimal health and protect against diet- and lifestyle-related disease.”
Integrative and functional medicine nutritionists have been uniquely trained and have many years of experience incorporating the art and science of integrative and functional nutrition treatment. They understand that giving you a standard diet plan based on a diagnosis is just not enough to foster optimum recovery. After all, one size does not fit all and they strive to provide the maximum quality of individualized nutrition care to all of our patients.
Practice-Based Evidence for Nutrition
Practice-based evidence promotes the worth of their wisdom and evidence gained by the professional’s clinical observations and experiences. The Dietitians in the Integrative and Functional Medicine (DIFM) practice group of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics has developed Standards of Practice (SOP) and Standards of Professional Performance (SOPP) in Integrative and Functional Medicine. The SOP addresses the Nutrition Care Process (NCP) and actions related to person-centered care. The SOPP are statements that describe a level of behaviour in the role.
The Integrative and Functional Medicine Nutrition Therapy (IFMNT) Radial was established within an integrated conceptual framework to assist in IFMNT practice. The structure of this IFMNT Radial allows for the analysis of interrelationships and interactions. The Radial depicts that food is still a source of information that affects, and is influenced by, the five areas also as a factor in disease and health.
The five key areas include: lifestyle, systems (signs and symptoms), heart imbalances, metabolic pathways, and biomarkers. Surrounding the Radial are currently precipitating. The SOP, at the June 2011 issue of the Journal of the American Dietetic Association, is along with the IFMNT Radial.
The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal injuries and conditions. To discuss options on the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 .
By Dr. Alex Jimenez
Additional Topics: Wellness
Overall health and wellness are essential towards maintaining the proper mental and physical balance in the body. From eating a balanced nutrition as well as exercising and participating in physical activities, to sleeping a healthy amount of time on a regular basis, following the best health and wellness tips can ultimately help maintain overall well-being. Eating plenty of fruits and vegetables can go a long way towards helping people become healthy.
Wellness Chiropractor, Dr. Alexander Jimenez takes a look at discussing nutrition with patients in a clinical setting.
How Clinicians Can Do Better
Despite overwhelming evidence that relatively small dietary changes can significantly improve health, clinicians seldom discuss nutrition with their patients. Poor nutritional intake and nutrition-related health conditions, such as cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes, obesity, hypertension, and many cancers, are highly prevalent in the United States,1 yet only 12% of office visits include counseling about diet.2 Even among high- risk patients with CVD, diabetes, or hyperlipidemia, only 1 in 5 receive nutrition counseling.2 It is likely that many patients receive most of their nutrition information from other, and often unreliable, sources.
These data may reflect the minimal training, time, and reimbursement allocated to nutrition counseling (and preventive services in general) in clinical practice.3 Most physicians and other health care professionals receive limited education on nutrition in medical school (or other professional schools) or in postgraduate training. Just 25% of medical schools offer a dedicated nutrition course, a decline since the status of nutrition education in US medical schools was first assessed in 1985, and few medical schools achieve the 30 hours of nutrition education recommended by the National Academy of Sciences.4 As a result, physicians report inadequate nutrition knowledge and low self-efficacy for counseling patients about diet.3 In addition, time pressures, especially in primary care, limit opportunities to counsel on nutrition or address preventive issues beyond patients� acute complaints. Lack of time is frequently cited as the greatest barrier to counseling on nutrition and obesity.3
Moreover, nutrition and behavioral counseling have traditionally been non-reimbursed services. Few state Medicaid programs cover nutrition or obesity counseling, and before 2012, Medicare explicitly excluded coverage for obesity counseling; although now a reimbursed service for Medicare beneficiaries, just 1% of eligible Medicare beneficiaries receive this counseling.5 Dietitian counseling is also excluded by Medicare, unless patients have diabetes or renal disease. Although the Affordable Care Act mandates coverage for services graded A or B by the US Preventive Services Task Force, including nutrition counseling for patients with CVD risk factors and obesity counseling for patients with a body mass index of 30 or greater, existing private health insurance benefits are in- consistent, and the covered services are often unclear to both clinicians and patients, thereby limiting use.
Furthermore, health behavior change counseling is often frustrating given the current food environment, in which less nutritious foods tend to be less expensive, larger portioned, more easily accessible, and more heavily marketed than healthier options, making patient adherence 6 to nutrition advice challenging. Conflicting and confusing nutrition messages from popular books, blogs, and other media further complicate patient decision making.
Despite these unfavorable trends, there has been progress in this area. The evidence base supporting the benefits of nutrition intervention and behavioral counseling is expanding. Renewed focus on nutrition education in health care professional training is being driven by both student demand and the health care system. Although time pressures and reimbursement remain impediments, incentives and reimbursement options for nutrition and behavioral counseling are growing, and value-based care and health care team approaches hold promise to better align time demands and incentives for long-term care management. Initiatives to integrate clinical care and community resources offer opportunities to leverage resources that alleviate the clinician�s time commitment. There is evidence of some success; for instance, the amount of sugar-sweetened beverages consumed by individuals in the United States has declined substantially over the past 10 years.7
Clinicians can take the following reasonable steps to include nutrition counseling into the flow of daily practice:
1. Start the conversation. Several short, validated screen- ing questionnaires are available to quickly assess need for nutrition counseling, such as the Starting the Conversation tool8 (Table). This approach can be efficiently used prior to seeing the patient at an appointment, either delivered by medical assistants as part of vital sign assessment or as prescreening paperwork for patients to complete online or in the waiting room.
2. Structure the encounter.�Using methods such as the �5 A�s� (assess, advise, agree, assist, arrange), which has been adapted from tobacco counseling. Motivational interviewing, which has documented efficacy in numerous behavior change settings, is particularly helpful to engage patients who are not yet committed or are hesitant to consider behavioral change.
3. Focus on small steps. Changing lifelong nutrition behaviors can seem overwhelming, but even exceedingly small shifts can have an effect (Table). For example, increasing fruit intake by just 1 serving per day has the estimated potential to reduce cardiovascular mortality risk by 8%, the equivalent of 60 000 fewer deaths annually in the United States and 1.6 million deaths globally.9 Other examples include reducing intake of sugar-sweetened beverages, fast food meals, processed meats, and sweets, while increasing vegetables, legumes, nuts, and whole grains. Emphasize to patients that every food choice is an opportunity to accrue benefits, and even small ones add up. Small substitutions still allow for �treats,� such as replacing potato chips and cheese dip with tortilla chips and salsa, the latter lowering trans fats and saturated fat and increasing whole grain and vegetable intake (Table).
4. Use available resources. Numerous extracurricular resources are readily available for clinicians. The Nutrition in Medicine program offers online, evidence-based nutrition education and tutorials for clinicians and an online, core nutrition curriculum for medical students. The Dietary Guidelines for Americans offers evidence- based and freely available nutrition guidance, tutorials, and tools for clinicians and patients alike. A companion website, Choose My Plate, offers nutrition and counseling advice for clinicians and handy resources for patients, including recently added videos with useful examples of small substitutions that patients will appreciate.
5. Do not do it all at once. Expecting to create long-term behavioral change during a single episode of care is a recipe for frustration and failure, for both the patient and clinician. Empowering and sup- porting patients is an ongoing process, not a 1-time curative event. Use a few minutes at the close of a patient visit to identify opportunities for future counseling, offer to serve as a resource, and be- gin a discussion and support that can be reinforced over time. Take solace in knowing that small initial steps can quickly improve health; for example, reducing trans fats at a single meal (eg, replacing baked goods with fruit or nuts or fried foods with non-fried alternatives) promptly improves endothelial function.10
6. Do not do it all alone.�The primary care physician need not be the sole clinician who provides nutrition counseling. Proactive use of physician extenders (eg, physician assistants, nurses, medical assistants, and health coaches) and referrals can alleviate much of the burden for the busy clinician. Receptionists can distribute assessment and screening questionnaires for patients to complete in the waiting room; medical assistants can document behavioral change progress while assessing vital signs; administrative staff can identify and con- tact patients who are overdue for interaction. Large practices may benefit from including nutrition or health coaches on staff. Referring to clinical specialists and community-based support programs can significantly extend the clinician�s reach.7 In addition to registered dietitians, numerous clinical and community resources are available and often covered by insurance plans. Board-certified obesity medicine specialists, certified diabetes educators, and physician nutrition specialists are available as referrals in many areas. Diabetes Prevention Program group counseling sessions are now covered by Medicare and available throughout communities, such as in many YMCA sites, and electronically.
Summary
Although there is no conclusive evidence that these steps will improve diet and health outcomes for patients, there is virtually no harm in counseling and the potential gains, especially at the population level, are substantial. Nutrition and health behavior change must become a core competency for virtually all physicians and any other health professionals working with patients who have or are at risk for nutrition-related chronic disease.
A Healthier You
Scott Kahan, MD, MPH Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland; and George Washington University School of Medicine, Washington, DC.
JoAnn E. Manson, MD, DrPH Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts; and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard T. H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts.
ARTICLE INFORMATION
Published Online: September 7, 2017. doi:10.1001/jama.2017.10434 Conflict of Interest Disclosures: All authors have
completed and submitted the ICMJE Form for Disclosure of Potential Conflicts of Interest and none were reported.
REFERENCES
1. Ward BW, Schiller JS, Goodman RA. Multiple chronic conditions among US adults: a 2012 update. Prev Chronic Dis. 2014;11:E62.
2. Office of Disease Prevention and Health Promotion. Healthy People 2020. https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/data-search/Search-the-Data#srch=nutrition. Accessed January 23, 2017.
3. Kolasa KM, Rickett K. Barriers to providing nutrition counseling cited by physicians. Nutr Clin Pract. 2010;25(5):502-509.
4. Adams KM, Kohlmeier M, Zeisel SH. Nutrition education in U.S. medical schools: latest update of a national survey. Acad Med. 2010;85(9):1537-1542.
5. Batsis JA, Bynum JPW. Uptake of the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid obesity benefit: 2012-2013. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2016;24(9):1983-1988.
6. Kahan S, Cheskin LJ. Obesity and eating behaviors and behavior change. In: Kahan S, Gielen AC, Fagan PJ, Green LW, eds. Health Behavior Change in Populations. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press; 2014:chap 13.
7. Rehm CD, Pe�alvo JL, Afshin A, Mozaffarian D. Dietary intake among US adults, 1999-2012.JAMA. 2016;315(23):2542-2553.
8. Paxton AE, Strycker LA, Toobert DJ, Ammerman AS, Glasgow RE. Starting the conversation performance of a brief dietary assessment and intervention tool for health professionals. Am J Prev Med. 2011;40(1):67-71.
9. Mozaffarian D, Capewell S. United Nations� dietary policies to prevent cardiovascular disease. BMJ. 2011;343:d5747.
10. Williams MJA, Sutherland WHF, McCormick MP, de Jong SA, Walker RJ, Wilkins GT. Impaired endothelial function following a meal rich in used cooking fat.J Am Coll Cardiol. 1999;33(4):1050-1055
Biocentrism is the ethical perspective with the moral standing or holding that all life deserves equal, ethical consideration and value. Although components of biocentrism can be discovered in spiritual traditions, it was not until the late decades of the 20th century�that the topic was dealt with by philosophical ethics in the Western tradition in a systematic method.
As a normative theory, biocentrism has practical implications for human behaviour. The good of all living beings generates responsibilities on the part of human beings.
Biocentrism may best be viewed as a means with which to follow and not as a set of rules to approach life. Approaching any and every living being with awe and humility can help to make life more purposeful, and it is in this manner that with which humans interact with other beings. Biocentric ethics can help to develop a group of attitudes and habits.
Biocentrism and Chiropractic Perspective
Following a biocentric ideal, in order for humans to achieve overall health and wellness, healthcare professionals and specialists have discussed the importance of maintaining and caring for the well-being of all living organisms which can be found within the human body, including microorganisms like bacteria. One natural medicine option is available to help safely and effective treat the body, much like the biocentrism belief: chiropractic care.
Chiropractic care, involving manual manipulations and spinal adjustments, can naturally provide relief from bodily pain and symptoms of bigger problems at hand, however, it’s crucial to understand that chiropractic doesn’t aim to become a cure for any one illness, disease, or health condition. Rather, chiropractic helps ease these by bringing the body back into balance, alignment, and stability. Chiropractic allows the body to naturally heal itself.
Chiropractors believe that when your system is aligned from adjustment methods, it has a greater prospect of recovering and repairing itself from the inside out. This may indirectly treat issues impacting a patient, while also preventing potential health concerns from taking hold too. Studies have shown that a manipulation of the spinal column can help to reduce inflammation and stress as well as help boost a person’s disposition, regulate sleep cycles, and also stabilize blood pressure levels. These effects often add up to bring relief from more serious health conditions, such as diabetes. In this way, chiropractic does not treat the issue, but it helps the body combat it naturally.
In order to comprehend how the body is really helped by this kind of care, it’s important to understand the parts of the body it benefits, such as the brain and spine. When you think about it, the spine is the base of our bodies, as it’s in charge of carrying out many of the body’s important functions. Primarily, it keeps us vertical and gives us both equilibrium and stability. It is also a part of the nervous system, which is the human body’s communication center. The central nervous system as a whole, sends and receives messages all over the body, and its wellness determines body functions. Though you might immediately understand its importance, much like biocentrism, the ethical perspective that all life deserves equal moral consideration or has equal moral standing, the health and wellness of the spine is linked to the entire body, which is exactly what makes its general well-being so crucial to a lot of structures and functions.
Involving Biocentrism with Nutrition
Chiropractic is based on the premise that the body is able to achieve and maintain health through its own natural recuperative powers, provided it has a properly functioning nervous system which also receives the essential health care elements. These components include sufficient nourishment, water, rest, exercise and a clean atmosphere. Through a biocentric ideal, the human body can continue maintaining a healthy system by taking care of the microorganisms, such as the bacteria found in our gut, as well as the plants and animals which we consume. Biocentrism also involves taking care of the environment. A healthy environment can ensure humans are consuming healthy organisms as well.
The body consists of two synergistic elements that have to function at optimal for health. Issues in the biomechanical component, comprising joints, tendons, ligaments and bones controlled by the nervous system, can be handled by the chiropractic care, therapy and rehabilitation. Problems in the biochemical component, consisting of the organs with all of their functions and also controlled by the nervous system, are best addressed by nutrition, which includes food, water and supplements. As you can’t function without impacting the other, it is important to address both elements. With knowledge of nutrition and the ability to help individuals, individuals can begin to follow more biocentric ideals in order to make better decisions and to support the health of their own bodies.
Many chiropractors believe that their patients must accept responsibility for their wellness and well-being. Consequently, DCs, or doctors of chiropractic, provide exercise recommendations, dietary guidance, health-risk avoidance advice and wellness counseling. Chiropractors are often active in public health efforts to improve the well-being of individuals.
“All good health starts with the gut. A lack of gut health leads to more musculoskeletal issues. Sixty to 70 percent of our immune cells are in our gut,” stated Dr. Silverman, DC. His therapy revolves around changing patients’ lifestyles, making them more active and putting them on a suitable dietary plan. “It is important to indicate a healthy diet plan to keep a healthy nutrient supply to help the body with natural purpose and recovery procedures,” concluded Dr. Silverman.
The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic and spinal injuries and conditions. To discuss options on the subject matter, please feel free to ask Dr. Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 .�
By Dr. Alex Jimenez
Additional Topics: Back Pain
Back pain is one of the most common symptoms reported among the general population. While back pain can occur due to a variety of injuries and/or underlying conditions, a work accident has often been associated as a frequent origin of back pain issues. Back pain can affect an individual at least once throughout their lifetime. Fortunately, federal employees who experience back pain, such as symptoms of sciatica, can benefit from programs like FECA.
IFM's Find A Practitioner tool is the largest referral network in Functional Medicine, created to help patients locate Functional Medicine practitioners anywhere in the world. IFM Certified Practitioners are listed first in the search results, given their extensive education in Functional Medicine
Nutrition is increasingly recognized as a key component of optimal sporting performance, with both the science and practice of sports nutrition developing rapidly.1 Recent studies have found that a planned scientific nutritional strategy (consisting of fluid, carbohydrate, sodium, and caffeine) compared with a self-chosen nutritional strategy helped non-elite runners complete a marathon run faster2 and trained cyclists complete a time trial faster.3 Whereas training has the greatest potential to increase performance, it has been estimated that consumption of a carbohydrate�electrolyte drink or relatively low doses of caffeine may improve a 40 km cycling time trial performance by 32�42 and 55�84 seconds, respectively.4
Carbohydrate ingestion has been shown to improve performance in events lasting approximately 1 hour.6 A growing body of evidence also demonstrates beneficial effects of a carbohydrate mouth rinse on performance.22 It is thought that receptors in the oral cavity signal to the central nervous system to positively modify motor output.23
The �train-low, compete-high� concept is training with low carbohydrate availability to promote adaptations such as�enhanced activation of cell-signaling pathways, increased mitochondrial enzyme content and activity, enhanced lipid oxidation rates, and hence improved exercise capacity.26 However, there is no clear evidence that performance is improved with this approach.27 For example, when highly trained cyclists were separated into once-daily (train-high) or twice-daily (train-low) training sessions, increases in resting muscle glycogen content were seen in the low-carbohydrate- availability group, along with other selected training adaptations.28 However, performance in a 1-hour time trial after 3 weeks of training was no different between groups. Other research has produced similar results.29 Different strategies have been suggested (eg, training after an overnight fast, training twice per day, restricting carbohydrate during recovery),26 but further research is needed to establish optimal dietary periodization plans.27
There has been a recent resurgence of interest in fat as a fuel, particularly for ultra endurance exercise. A high-carbohydrate strategy inhibits fat utilization during exercise,30 which may not be beneficial due to the abundance of energy stored in the body as fat. Creating an environment that optimizes fat oxidation potentially occurs when dietary carbohydrate is reduced to a level that promotes ketosis.31 However, this strategy may impair performance of high-intensity activity, by contributing to a reduction in pyruvate dehydrogenase activity and glycogenolysis. 32 The lack of performance benefits seen in studies investigating �high-fat� diets may be attributed to inadequate carbohydrate restriction and time for adaptation.31 Research into the performance effects of high fat diets continues.
While protein consumption prior to and during endurance and resistance exercise has been shown to enhance rates of muscle protein synthesis (MPS), a recent review found protein ingestion alongside carbohydrate during exercise does not improve time�trial performance when compared with the ingestion of adequate amounts of carbohydrate alone.33
The purpose of fluid consumption during exercise is primarily to maintain hydration and thermoregulation, thereby benefiting performance. Evidence is emerging on increased risk of oxidative stress with dehydration.34 Fluid consumption prior to exercise is recommended to ensure that the athlete is well-hydrated prior to commencing exercise.35 In addition,�carefully planned hyperhydration ( fluid overloading) prior to an event may reset fluid balance and increase fluid retention, and consequently improve heat tolerance.36 However, fluid overloading may increase the risk of hyponatremia 37 and impact negatively on performance due to feelings of fullness and the need to urinate.
Performance supplements shown to enhance performance include caffeine, beetroot juice, beta-alanine (BA), creatine, and bicarbonate.40 Comprehensive reviews on other supplements including caffeine, creatine, and bicarbonate can be found elsewhere.41 In recent years, research has focused on the role of nitrate, BA, and vitamin D and performance. Nitrate is most commonly provided as sodium nitrate or beetroot juice.42 Dietary nitrates are reduced (in mouth and stomach) to nitrites, and then to nitric oxide. During exercise, nitric oxide potentially influences skeletal muscle function through regulation of blood ow and glucose homeostasis, as well as mitochondrial respiration.43 During endurance exercise, nitrate supplementation has been shown to increase exercise efficiency (4%�5% reduction in VO at a steady attenuate oxidative stress.42 Similarly, a 4.2% improvement in performance was shown in a test designed to simulate a football game.44
Consuming carbohydrates immediately post exercise to coincide with the initial rapid phase of glycogen synthesis has been used as a strategy to maximize rates of muscle glycogen synthesis. An early study found delaying feeding by 2 hours after glycogen-depleting cycling exercise reduced glycogen synthesis rates.52 However the importance of this early enhanced rate of glycogen synthesis has been questioned in the context of extended recovery periods with sufficient carbohydrate consumption. Enhancing the rate of glycogen synthesis with immediate carbohydrate consumption after exercise appears most relevant when the next exercise session is within 8 hours of the first.53,54 Feeding frequency is also irrelevant with extended recovery; by 24 hours post exercise, consumption of carbohydrate as four large meals or 16 small snacks had comparable effects on muscle glycogen storage.55
An acute bout of intense endurance or resistance exercise can induce a transient increase in protein turnover, and, until feeding, protein balance remains negative. Protein consumption after exercise enhances MPS and net protein balance,58 predominantly by increasing mitochondrial protein fraction with endurance training, and myofibrillar protein fraction with resistance training.59
Fluid and electrolyte replacement after exercise can be achieved through resuming normal hydration practices. However, when euhydration is needed within 24 hours or substantial body weight has been lost (.5% of BM), a more structured response may be warranted to replace fluids and electrolytes.77
The availability of nutrition information for athletes varies. Younger or recreational athletes are more likely to receive generalized nutritional information of poorer quality from individuals such as coaches.78 Elite athletes are more likely to have access to specialized sports-nutrition input from qualified professionals. A range of sports science and medicine support systems are in place in different countries to assist elite athletes,1 and nutrition is a key component of these services. Some countries have nutrition programs embedded within sports institutes (eg, Australia) or alternatively have National Olympic Committees that support nutrition programs (eg, United States of America).1 However, not all athletes at the elite level have access to sports-nutrition services. This may be due to financial constraints of the sport, geographical issues, and a lack of recognition of the value of a sports-nutrition service.78
Supplement use is widespread in athletes.86,87 For example, 87.5% of elite athletes in Australia used dietary supplements88 and 87% of Canadian high-performance athletes took dietary supplements within the past 6 months85 (Table 2). It is difficult to compare studies due to differences in the criteria used to define dietary supplements, variations in assessing supplement intake, and disparities in the populations studied.85
A positive drug test in an athlete can occur with even a minute quantity of a banned substance.41,87 WADA maintains a �strict liability� policy, whereby every athlete is responsible for any substance found in their body regardless of how it got there.41,86,87,89 The World Anti-Doping Code (January 1, 2015) does recognize the issue of contaminated supplements.91 Whereas the code upholds the principle of strict liability, athletes may receive a lesser ban if they can��show �no significant fault� to demonstrate they did not intend to cheat. The updated code imposes longer bans on those who cheat intentionally, includes athlete support personnel (eg, coaches, medical staff), and has an increased focus on anti-doping education.91,99
