Back Clinic Neuropathy Treatment Team. Peripheral neuropathy is a result of damage to peripheral nerves. This often causes weakness, numbness, and pain, usually in the hands and feet. It can also affect other areas of your body. The peripheral nervous system sends information from the brain and spinal cord (central nervous system) to the body. It can result from traumatic injuries, infections, metabolic problems, inherited causes, and exposure to toxins. One of the most common causes is diabetes mellitus.
People generally describe the pain as stabbing, burning, or tingling. Symptoms can improve, especially if caused by a treatable condition. Medications can reduce the pain of peripheral neuropathy. It can affect one nerve (mononeuropathy), two or more nerves in different areas (multiple mononeuropathies), or many nerves (polyneuropathy). Carpal tunnel syndrome is an example of mononeuropathy. Most people with peripheral neuropathy have polyneuropathy. Seek medical attention right away if there is unusual tingling, weakness, or pain in your hands or feet. Early diagnosis and treatment offer the best chance for controlling your symptoms and preventing further damage to the peripheral nerves. Testimonies http://bit.ly/elpasoneuropathy
The information herein is not intended to replace a one-on-one relationship with a qualified healthcare professional or licensed physician and is not medical advice. We encourage you to make your own health care decisions based on your research and partnership with a qualified health care professional. Our information scope is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal, physical medicines, wellness, sensitive health issues, functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. We provide and present clinical collaboration with specialists from a wide array of disciplines. Each specialist is governed by their professional scope of practice and their jurisdiction of licensure. We use functional health & wellness protocols to treat and support care for the injuries or disorders of the musculoskeletal system. Our videos, posts, topics, subjects, and insights cover clinical matters, issues, and topics that relate to and support, directly or indirectly, our clinical scope of practice.* Our office has made a reasonable attempt to provide supportive citations and has identified the relevant research study or studies supporting our posts. We provide copies of supporting research studies available to regulatory boards and the public upon request.
We understand that we cover matters that require an additional explanation of how it may assist in a particular care plan or treatment protocol; therefore, to further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900.
Cerebral perfusion pressure, or CPP, is the net pressure gradient which carries oxygen to brain tissue. It is measured by the difference between the mean arterial pressure, or MAP, and the Intracranial Pressure, or ICP,� which is measured in millimeters of mercury (mm Hg). Regulating CPP is fundamental in the treatment of patients with intracranial pathology, including shock, hemodynamic distress, and traumatic brain injury. �
Although the average CPP is generally between 60 and 80 mm Hg, these values may change to the left or to the right depending on individual physiology. MAP and ICP has to be measured together because CPP is a calculated measure. Regulating CPP at hemodynamically unstable conditions with abnormal ICP or in cases of intracranial pathology will reduce the chance of ischemic brain injury. �
CPP = MAP – ICP
Cerebral Perfusion Pressure Physiology
CPP and ICP
At its own average range of 60 to 80 mm Hg, the CPP is determined by the ICP and the mean arterial pressure. Under regular standards, the ICP is between 5 and 10 mm Hg which has a reduced effect on the CPP than the MAP in clinical circumstances not associated with intracranial pathology. ICP is generally measured through intracranial pressure transduction.
Physiologically, the ICP is a function of intracranial compliance. Intracranial compliance is the relationship between the ICP and the volume of the intracranial cavity including cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, brain tissue as well as arterial and venous blood volume. Because the skull is a fixed and rigid anatomic space, the ICP can increase if the intracranial volume increases while intracranial compliance decreases. As the ICP increases or intracranial compliance decreases, CPP also decreases. �
Several processes determine that ICP continues to stay within the average range for the longest extended period of time possible, especially throughout periods of affected intracranial volume and compliance. As volume adds to the intracranial space, CSF can shift into the spinal subarachnoid space, causing the ICP to continue significantly unchanged. As volume increases due to a growing space-occupying lesion, brain tissue edema or blood, this process ultimately becomes overwhelming, and ICP begins to increase substantially. �
Cerebral blood flow, or CBF, is also a fundamental factor in ICP homeostasis. Cerebral auto-regulation makes sure that steady blood flow is maintained in the brain over a wide range of physiologic alterations. When blood pressure decreases, auto-regulation causes cerebral vasodilation and an increase in CBF and cerebral blood volume, maintaining ICP and CPP. However, when blood pressure increases, auto-regulation causes cerebral vasoconstriction and a decrease in CBF with a decrease in cerebral blood volume, also regulating ICP and CPP. Too many changes outside of average CBF ranges can cause brain ischemia and injury. �
CPP and MAP
Because ICP in its average ranges is a considerably small number, the CPP generally depends on the mean arterial pressure. MAP is the normal blood pressure during one cardiac cycle which can be measured through invasive hemodynamic monitoring or calculated by the systolic blood pressure, plus two times the diastolic blood pressure, divided by three. The average range of MAP is 70 to 100 mm Hg. �
The average arterial pressure can be affected due to everyday activities, such as rest, stress, and exercise or physical activities. However, if the ICP continues to stay the same, the average arterial pressure can change across its significantly wide range without tremendously decreasing or increasing the CPP. As a matter of fact, CPP and CBF will continue to stay considerably unchanged across a wider range of MAP (50 � 150 mm Hg) than normal due to cerebral auto-regulation and vasoconstriction or vasodilation of cerebral vasculature. �
For patients with hypertension, the auto-regulation setpoint changes, decreasing the average arterial pressure associated with the patient�s normal arterial pressure, which causes vasodilation to increase CBF. Patients with lower than normal average arterial pressure at baseline will have auto-regulatory vasoconstriction as a reaction to an increase in their significant average MAP, to return CBF to baseline. When looking at CBF and CPP in the context of the patient�s average MAP, it is clinically significant based on the regulation of intracranial pathology and hemodynamic derangements. �
Cerebral Perfusion Pressure Complications
Diagnosing and treating cerebral perfusion pressure complications necessitates measuring both the ICP and the MAP. The MAP may be quantified through the utilization of invasive hemodynamic processes, most frequently cannulation of a peripheral artery such as the radial or femoral artery. The MAP may also be measured with a non-invasive blood pressure cuff by applying the formula mentioned above utilizing the systolic and diastolic blood pressures. � Intracranial pressure is generally measured through an intracranial pressure transduction device. The most common and most accurate method or technique is utilizing an intraventricular monitor. The intraventricular dimension of ICP is the normal standard. An intraventricular catheter is inserted into a hole drilled in the skull and into the lateral ventricle to gauge the pressure of the CSF. The benefit of an intraventricular catheter is that CSF could be eliminated, if needed, to decrease ICP. Considerable complications for the ICP include a possibility of bleeding, infection, and difficulty with proper placement. Options include sub-dural and intra-parenchymal monitors. �
The ICP can be measured non-invasively through several methods and techniques, including transcranial Doppler ultrasonography or TCD. TCD utilizes a temporal window to evaluate the speed of blood flow through the middle cerebral artery. Systolic and diastolic average flow velocity is utilized to determine a pulsatility index. The pulsatility index was determined to be closely associated with ICP in several research studies as well as be associated with ICP in other research studies. Therefore, it is not suggested to use TCD as a substitute for direct ICP dimension. Invasive diagnosis and treatment of the MAP through an arterial cannula and the ICP through an intraventricular catheter will give a continuous and accurate calculation of CPP. �
Cerebral Perfusion Pressure Clinical Significance
Two general types of pathologic health issues can ultimately occur where the regulation of the CPP is fundamental, such as intracranial pathology, where ICP regulation is essential and hemodynamic instability/shock where MAP regulation is the most essential. Intracranial pathology involves space-occupying lesions, such as tumors, epidural and subdural hematoma or severe intraparenchymal hemorrhage and cerebral edema as seen after ischemic injury, traumatic brain injury or acute hepatic encephalopathy. In these circumstances, average CPP depends on decreasing the ICP into a normal range as soon as possible while regulating the MAP. When CPP is normal, it’s fundamental to keep in mind that every individual’s brain tissue has a CPP that is “normal” in the context of that individual patient’s physiology, which may be affected by other health issues, such as hypertension or cardiovascular disease. Moving towards a more dynamic direction of the average CPP utilizing the patient’s personal auto-regulatory capacity. These diagnosis and treatment approaches involve more frequent and sophisticated monitoring and might not be readily available for widespread utilization. �
In the instance of considerable traumatic brain injury, significant cerebral edema can decrease intracranial compliance and CSF, developing an increased ICP or intracranial hypertension. Auto-regulatory mechanisms and techniques may or may not function normally and when ICP continues to be elevated, CPP will decrease causing further injury through an ischemic process. In circumstances such as these, together with starting the measures for decreasing the ICP, it is essential to prevent hypotension (MAP – ICP = CPP) and in some instances, allowing hypertension to reasonably occur. �
In circumstances of instability, the ICP is considerably stable as cerebral auto-regulation is undamaged. In the instance of hypotension, the MAP decreases due to blood loss, or hemorrhagic shock, intravascular leak, or distributive shock, and decreased cardiac output, or cardiogenic shock, and the CPP also decreases. It’s the association between MAP and CPP which carries resuscitation guidelines to recommend regulating a MAP greater than or equal to 65 mm Hg. With a normal ICP, this threshold must make sure that a CPP of 55 to 60, the minimum necessary to stop cerebral ischemic injury, is ultimately maintained. As in the circumstance of ICP and cerebral auto-regulation, the goal of MAP is to be within the context of an individual patient’s evaluation hemodynamic function. Patients with untreated hypertension must have increased MAP goals to maintain proper CBF and CPP. �
As previously mentioned in the following article, cerebral perfusion pressure, or CPP, is the net pressure gradient which affects cerebral blood flow to the brain, also known as brain perfusion. According to healthcare professionals, the CPP, or cerebral perfusion pressure, must be constantly regulated within a specific limit because too little pressure or too much pressure could potentially cause a variety of brain health issues. Cerebral perfusion pressure may be associated with a variety of neurological diseases. – Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight
The purpose of the article is to discuss cerebral perfusion pressure and its association with neurodegenerative diseases. Neurological diseases are associated with the brain, the spine, and the nerves. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal and nervous health issues as well as functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. To further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 . �
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �
Additional Topic Discussion: Chronic Pain
Sudden pain is a natural response of the nervous system which helps to demonstrate possible injury. By way of instance, pain signals travel from an injured region through the nerves and spinal cord to the brain. Pain is generally less severe as the injury heals, however, chronic pain is different than the average type of pain. With chronic pain, the human body will continue sending pain signals to the brain, regardless if the injury has healed. Chronic pain can last for several weeks to even several years. Chronic pain can tremendously affect a patient’s mobility and it can reduce flexibility, strength, and endurance.
Formulas for Methylation Support
XYMOGEN�s Exclusive Professional Formulas are available through select licensed health care professionals. The internet sale and discounting of XYMOGEN formulas are strictly prohibited.
Proudly,�Dr. Alexander Jimenez makes XYMOGEN formulas available only to patients under our care.
Please call our office in order for us to assign a doctor consultation for immediate access.
If you are a patient of Injury Medical & Chiropractic�Clinic, you may inquire about XYMOGEN by calling 915-850-0900.
�
For your convenience and review of the XYMOGEN products please review the following link.*XYMOGEN-Catalog-Download �
* All of the above XYMOGEN policies remain strictly in force. �
You have probably heard about the “gray matter” of the brain which is made up of cells known as neurons, however, a lesser-known type of brain cell is ultimately what makes up the “white matter” of the brain.� These are known as glial cells. �
Glial cells, also known as glia or neuroglia, were only considered to simply offer structural support. The term “glia” literally translates to “neural adhesive.” However, relatively recent research studies have demonstrated that they play a variety of roles in the brain and the nerves which run throughout the entire human body. However, there is more left to find out. �
Types of Glial Cells
Glial cells commonly offer support to the neurons. Without them, several of the most fundamental roles would never be achieved although they may not perform these roles themselves. Glial cells come in numerous forms, each of which performs certain functions to keep the brain functioning properly or not, in case of a neurological disease which affects the glial cells. �
The central nervous system, or CNS, is made up of the brain, the spinal cord, and the nerves. Five types of glial cells include: �
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytes
Microglia
Ependymal cells
Radial glia
Moreover, there are also glial cells on the peripheral nervous system, or PNS, which is made up of the nerves in the upper and lower extremities, away from the spine. The two types of glial cells found in the peripheral nervous system include: �
Schwann cells
Satellite cells
� �
Astrocytes
The most common type of glial cell in the central nervous system is the astrocyte, also known as astroglia. The “astro” part of the name refers to how they look like stars with projections coming out all over the glial cell. Protoplasmic astrocytes have thick projections with lots of branches. Fibrous astrocytes have long, slender arms. The fibrous ones are found in the white matter while others are found among neurons in the gray matter.� Astrocytes play several major roles, including: �
Developing the blood-brain barrier or BBB. The BBB is similar to a strict security system which only allows substances which are supposed to be in the brain. This filtering system is essential for maintaining brain health.
Regulating the substances around neurons. Neurons communicate utilizing chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters. Once a chemical has transmitted a message to a cell, it essentially stays there cluttering things up until an astrocyte recycles it through a process known as reuptake. The reuptake process is generally the main target of numerous medications, including anti-depressants. Astrocytes also clean up what’s left behind when a neuron dies, as well as excess potassium ions, which are chemicals that play a fundamental role in nerve function.
Regulating blood flow to the brain. For the brain to process information accordingly, it needs a certain amount of blood to flow throughout all of its different regions. An active region receives more blood flow than an inactive one.
Synchronizing the activity of axons. Axons are characterized as long, thread-like elements of the neurons and the nerve cells which ultimately conduct electricity to help transmit messages from one cell to another.
Astrocyte dysfunction has been potentially connected to a wide variety of neurological diseases, including: �
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS or Lou Gehrig’s disease)
Huntington’s chorea
Parkinson’s disease
Animal models of astrocyte-related disorders are helping researchers learn more about these neurological diseases. �
Oligodendrocytes
Oligodendrocytes develop from stem cells. The term is made up of Greek words which, all together, mean “cells with several branches.” Their main role is to help information move faster. Oligodendrocytes appear like white spikey balls. Their purpose is to make a protective layer, similar to the plastic insulation on electric wires. This layer is known as the myelin sheath. �
The myelin sheath is not constant. There is a gap between each membrane which is known as the”node of Ranvier,” and it is the node which helps electrical signals move effectively along neural cells. The signal is transmitted from one node to the next, which increases the velocity of the nerve conduction whilst also reducing how much energy it takes to transmit it. �
Messages along myelinated nerves may travel as fast as 200 miles per second. At birth, you only have a few myelinated axons, and the quantity of these keeps growing until you’re about 25 to 30 years old. Myelination is thought to play an important role in intelligence. Oligodendrocytes also supply stability and transmit energy from blood cells into the axons. �
The expression “myelin sheath” may be familiar to you because of its association with multiple sclerosis. In multiple sclerosis, it is believed that the human body’s immune system attacks the myelin sheaths, which leads to the breakdown of these neurons and ultimately causes impaired brain functioning. Spinal cord injuries may also cause damage to these structures. � Other neurological diseases believed to be associated with oligodendrocyte dysfunction include: �
Leukodystrophies
Tumors known as oligodendrogliomas
Schizophrenia
Bipolar disorder
Several research studies suggest that oligodendrocytes may become affected by the neurotransmitter glutamate, which, among other functions, stimulates regions of the brain so that you’re able to focus and learn new information. Nonetheless, in high levels, glutamate can be considered an “excitotoxin,” which means that it may overstimulate cells until they die. �
Microglia
Microglia are tiny glial cells. They act as the brain’s dedicated immune system, which is necessary since the BBB isolates the brain from the rest of the human body. Microglia are attentive to indications of disease and injury. If they find a problem, they are in charge of taking care of it, even if it ultimately means clearing away dead cells or getting rid of a toxin or pathogen. �
If they respond to an injury, microglia cause inflammation as part of the recovery process. In some cases, such as in Alzheimer’s disease, they might become hyper-activated and cause too much inflammation. That is thought to cause amyloid plaques and other health issues connected with the neurological disease, among a variety of other brain health issues. � Along with Alzheimer’s disease, other neurological diseases which may be associated with microglial malfunction include: �
Fibromyalgia
Chronic neuropathic pain
Autism spectrum disorders
Schizophrenia
Microglia have been thought to play many fundamental roles beyond that, including learning-associated plasticity and guiding the development of the brain. The brain produces many connections between neurons which allow them to pass information back and forth. The brain produces a lot more of these than we need, which is not always efficient. �
Microglia detect unnecessary synapses and they clean them out. Microglial research has really taken off in recent decades, leading to an ever-increasing comprehension of their roles in both health and disease in the central nervous system. �
Ependymal Cells
Ependymal cells are primarily known for creating a membrane known as the ependyma, and it can be described as a thin membrane lining the central canal of the spinal cord and the ventricles or passageways of the brain. They also create cerebrospinal fluid. Ependymal cells are extremely small and they lineup closely together to make the membrane. �
Inside the ventricles, are the cilia, which look like small hairs which move back and forth to help circulate the cerebrospinal fluid. Cerebrospinal fluid provides nutrients and removes waste products in the brain. Additionally, it serves as a cushion and shock absorber between the skull and the brain. It’s also essential for homeostasis in the brain, regulating its temperature along with other attributes which keep its potential and functioning. Ependymal cells are also included in the BBB. �
Radial Glia
Radial glia are believed to be a type of stem cell, which means that they create other types of cells. In the developing brain, they’re the”parents” of neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. They also supply scaffolding for developing neurons, thanks to long fibers which direct young brain cells into position as the brain forms in a human embryo. Their role as stem cells, especially as founders of neurons, is ultimately what makes them the focus of research studies regarding how to repair brain damage from injury or illness. Later in life, the radial glia perform important roles in neuroplasticity as well. �
Schwann Cells
Schwann cells are known after the physiologist Theodor Schwann, who discovered them. They function a lot like oligodendrocytes in which they supply myelin sheaths for axons, but they develop in the peripheral nervous system, or PNS, rather than in the central nervous system or CNS. However, Schwann cells form spirals directly across the axon. �
Ranvier’s nodes are found between the membranes of oligodendrocytes and these help in neural transmission in precisely the same exact way. Schwann cells can also be part of the PNS’s immune system. They ultimately have the ability to consume the axons of the nerve and give a protected path for a brand new axon to develop when another nerve cell is damaged. Neurological diseases involving abnormal Schwann cells include: �
Guillain-Barre’ syndrome
Charcot-Marie-Tooth disorder
Schwannomatosis
Chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy
Leprosy
Several research studies on bronchial Schwann cells for spinal cord injury and other types of peripheral nerve damage have been promising. Schwann cells are implicated in certain types of chronic pain. Their activation following nerve damage may contribute to dysfunction in a type of nerve fiber known as nociceptors, which feel external factors like heat and cold. �
Satellite Cells
Satellite cells get their name due to the way they surround certain neurons, with several satellites forming a sheath around the cellular surface. Researchers have only just started to learn about these cells but they’re believed to be similar to astrocytes. The main role of satellite cells is believed to be the regulation of the surroundings around the nerves. �
The nerves which have satellite cells make up something known as ganglia, which are clusters of nerve cells in the autonomic nervous system and sensory apparatus. The autonomic nervous system regulates internal organs, even while the sensory system is what enables people to see, hear, taste, touch, and smell. Satellite cells provide nourishment to the neuron and absorb heavy metal toxins, such as lead and mercury, to stop them from damaging the nerves and other structures. �
They are also believed to assist transport several neurotransmitters and other substances, including: �
Glutamate
GABA
Norepinephrine
Adenosine triphosphate
Substance P
Capsaicin
Acetylcholine
Much like microglia, satellite cells detect and respond to injury and inflammation. However, their role in repairing cell damage isn’t yet fully well understood. Satellite cells have been connected to chronic pain between peripheral tissue injury, nerve damage, and a systemic heightening of pain, or hyperalgesia, which can ultimately result from chemotherapy. �
Glial cells, also known as glia or neuroglia, are characterized as non-neuronal cells which are ultimately found in the central nervous system, or CNS, and the peripheral nervous system, or PNS. There are various types of glial cells, including astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells, and radial glia in the CNS and Schwann cells and satellite cells in the PNS. The glial cells play many fundamental roles in the human nervous system. – Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight
The purpose of the article is to discuss the types of glial cells associated with the brain and neurodegenerative diseases. Neurological diseases are associated with the brain, the spine, and the nerves. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal and nervous health issues as well as functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. To further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 . �
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �
Additional Topic Discussion: Chronic Pain
Sudden pain is a natural response of the nervous system which helps to demonstrate possible injury. By way of instance, pain signals travel from an injured region through the nerves and spinal cord to the brain. Pain is generally less severe as the injury heals, however, chronic pain is different than the average type of pain. With chronic pain, the human body will continue sending pain signals to the brain, regardless if the injury has healed. Chronic pain can last for several weeks to even several years. Chronic pain can tremendously affect a patient’s mobility and it can reduce flexibility, strength, and endurance.
Formulas for Methylation Support
XYMOGEN�s Exclusive Professional Formulas are available through select licensed health care professionals. The internet sale and discounting of XYMOGEN formulas are strictly prohibited.
Proudly,�Dr. Alexander Jimenez makes XYMOGEN formulas available only to patients under our care.
Please call our office in order for us to assign a doctor consultation for immediate access.
If you are a patient of Injury Medical & Chiropractic�Clinic, you may inquire about XYMOGEN by calling 915-850-0900.
�
� For your convenience and review of the XYMOGEN products please review the following link.*XYMOGEN-Catalog-Download �
* All of the above XYMOGEN policies remain strictly in force. �
Neural cell death can occur both during the development and throughout the pathophysiology of the nervous system. Two different types of cell death, known as necrosis and apoptosis, are involved in pathological neuronal loss, however, apoptosis is the process of programmed cell death during development. All types of cells will go through apoptosis. This mechanism controls neuronal growth where an excess of neurons is produced and only those which form connections with the target structures will receive enough survival factors. The remaining neurons will then ultimately go through death and removal. �
Apoptosis continues throughout life and it is the main process involved in the elimination of surplus, unwanted, damaged or aged cells. Dysregulation of apoptosis is demonstrated after damage or injury as well as in neurodegeneration and in tumorigenesis. Treatment approaches which influence the apoptotic pathway offer valuable therapeutic options in a wide variety of pathological states. The purpose of the article is to describe the significance of apoptosis in neurological diseases. �
What is Apoptosis?
Apoptosis is the well-conserved and highly controlled process of cell death involved in the removal of unnecessary, surplus, aged or damaged cells. Dysregulation of apoptosis can ultimately develop mutated cells which can result in malformations, autoimmune diseases, and even cancer. Abnormal apoptosis can also result in the elimination of healthy cells which can occur in health issues such as infection, hypoxic-ischaemic injury, neurodegenerative or neuromuscular diseases, and AIDS. �
Apoptosis is different from necrotic cell death. In necrosis, cell death is caused by an external factor and involves the early loss of tissue, damage to organs, and the leakage of cytoplasmic contents, leading to the recruitment of phagocytes which can cause an acute inflammatory reaction. In contrast, apoptosis is often considered cell suicide. According to research studies, cells which die due to apoptosis retain membrane and organelle structure and function until late in the process while still developing plasma membrane blebbing, reduced cytoplasmic volume, chromatin condensation, and nuclear fragmentation. �
In the final phases, cell fragments wrapped in plasma membrane pull away as apoptotic bodies which are then phagocytosed by healthy cells. The removal of cell debris also occurs in the absence of an inflammatory response, and this silent, quick, and efficient elimination of apoptotic cells mean that apoptosis can be difficult to find in cells. However, as many as 50 percent of the cells in developing adulthood may go through apoptosis where less than 1 percent of cells are apoptotic at any one time. �
Apoptosis in the Nervous System
Programmed cell death by apoptosis occurs in several developmental processes, such as body sculpting and removal of self-reacting resistant cells as well as sexual organ growth and gamete formation. The general principle of growth in multicellular organisms involves the development of excess numbers of cells, where the excess or unwanted cells are then removed by apoptosis through the development of functional organs. In the developing nervous system, apoptosis has been demonstrated to occur in neural tube formation and continues throughout terminal differentiation of the neural system. �
A growing number of neurotrophic factors, such as nerve growth factor family, including both the neurokines and development factors like insulin-like growth variables (IGF-I and IGF-II), encourage the survival of several types of neurons. Targeted disruption of genes encoding these factors or their receptors demonstrate that neurotrophic factors are significant for the development of specific neuronal populations. Neurotrophic factors function by binding to specific receptors in the cell membrane. Moreover, the effects of NGF offer a good illustration of the subtle command the system permits. �
The nerve growth factor receptor has high and low affinity components. It will function as a survival factor if it binds to the high-affinity trkA receptor but it will also cause apoptosis of retinal neurons or oligodendrocytes once it binds to the low-affinity receptor p75 in the absence of trkA. Nerve growth factor in the extracellular environment is consequently able to control neural development by both boosting the growth of several types of cells as well as the removal of other cells. �
In some cases, however, concentrated genetic disruption of neurotrophic factors or their receptors may leave the central nervous system seemingly unaffected, demonstrating that these variables can ultimately become biased. According to research studies, it has now become evident that the control of neuronal survival does not only depend on the supply of trophic molecules by the targets but also on activity, humoral factors, and trophic support from glia or glial cells. �
Furthermore, neurons don’t simply undergo programmed cell death during differentiation. Apoptosis appears to regulate cell numbers in systems as diverse as the disappearance of the germinal layer during the third trimester of pregnancy, the sexual differentiation of the medial preoptic nucleus where apoptosis is controlled by testosterone, lineages throughout the olfactory epithelium, oligodendrocyte development in the optic nerve, and the development of Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system. Programmed cell death occurs in a variety of other processes in the developing nervous system. �
Apoptosis in Nervous System Injuries & Diseases
Although apoptosis is a fundamental process involved in the developing nervous system, apoptosis can ultimately be involved in a variety of nervous system injuries and diseases. In most cases, the connection between a specific mutation or trauma as well as the activation of apoptotic cascades remains evasive. An overview of a developing list of neurological diseases in which apoptosis has been implicated as a significant pathological mechanism is provided below. �
Neuronal Injury
Cerebral hypoxic-ischaemic injury is a cause of neurological injury and death. Magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies have demonstrated that transient hypoxia-ischemia contributes to a biphasic disturbance of cerebral energy metabolism. Related to the biphasic energy collapse, two waves of cell death appear to follow hypoxic-ischaemic injury in the developing brain. Immediate neuronal death is most likely due to necrosis resulting from the accumulation of calcium ions. �
Delayed cell death caused by hypoxic-ischemic injury appears to involve further mechanisms with increasing data which demonstrates that in the delayed phase, cell death occurs by apoptosis. The amount of apoptosis is directly associated with the magnitude of ATP depletion during hypoxia-ischemia. Apoptosis can occur in the brains of newborn babies following birth asphyxia and sudden intrauterine death. Apoptosis can also be notable in white matter injury in newborn babies. �
Apoptosis may continue for months after an hypoxic-ischaemic injury due to constant changes in cerebral energy metabolism in infants during the months after birth asphyxia. Following focal neural injury, apoptosis has been discovered in remote regions from the initial damage. After severe spinal cord injury in reptiles, apoptosis of oligodendrocytes occurs in distant degenerating fiber tracts and after forebrain injury in rats, apoptosis was demonstrated in the cerebellum. �
The apoptotic loss of oligodendrocytes could consequently be a potential source of secondary demyelination in paraplegia and in the chronic degeneration related to multiple sclerosis. Further research studies must be performed in order to provide further evidence on the role of apoptosis in this type of injury which begins from the report of which Bcl-2 expression boosts the growth and regeneration of retinal axons. Apoptosis in neuronal injury can be demonstrated in a variety of ways. �
Neural Cancers
A connection between apoptosis and the cell cycle is demonstrated in carcinogenesis where proto-oncogenes, such as c-fos, c-jun, and c-myc, can activate apoptosis and promote cell division while inactivation of the pro-apoptotic p53 tumor suppressor gene is a frequent mark of human neoplasia. By way of instance, in a number of gliomas, the reduction of wild p53 activity was connected to tumor progression, possibly leading to resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy. �
Although there have been reports of Bcl-2 overexpression in glioma cell lines, the correlation between the anti-apoptotic effect of this gene and malignancy is not yet clear. However, a homolog of Bcl-2, the brain associated apoptosis gene (BRAG-1), is found predominantly in the brain, and it is upregulated in human gliomas as a rearranged transcript. As demonstrated above, the process of apoptosis can also be significant in the development of neural cancers, according to research studies. �
Infectious Disease
Apoptosis may play a role in HIV encephalopathy. In the brain, the virus reproduces primarily in microglia which it enters through the CD4 receptor. Although the activation of microglia is believed to be the main reason for adrenal loss and demyelination, neurons die by apoptosis in HIV encephalopathies because of HIV mediated alterations in astrocyte function and aberrant stimulation of NMDA receptors or due to nitric oxide from the activation of inducible nitric oxide synthase. �
In subacute sclerosing panencephalitis, widespread apoptotic death was demonstrated to develop in the brain, although no correlation was observed between viral load, lymphocyte infiltration, and the number of apoptotic cells. DNA fragmentation indicative of apoptosis was detected in scrapie-infected sheep and mice brains, suggesting a function associated with cell death in spongiform encephalopathies. Apoptosis may also ultimately be involved in another infectious disease. �
Neurodegeneration
Spinal muscular atrophy is associated with mutations in the survival of motor neuron and neuronal apoptosis inhibitory protein (NAIP) enzymes. NAIP is closely related to the baculovirus inhibitor of apoptosis protein and inhibits apoptosis in many cell types. This implies that mutations in NAIP could deregulate apoptosis in spinal motor nerves, causing their death. Recent studies emphasize the importance of anti-apoptotic genes in cerebral protection which can rescue neurons. �
Apoptosis has also been implicated in retinal dystrophies such as retinitis pigmentosa. In this case, apoptosis results from mutations in the three photoreceptor genes, rhodopsin, peripherin, and the ?-subunit of cyclic guanosine monophosphate di esterase, resulting in photoreceptor degeneration. The absence of c-fos prevents apoptosis in those cells is unknown. Moreover, defined neurotrophins and growth factors injected intraocularly in animal models of retinal degeneration improve photoreceptor survival, suggesting that the apoptotic cascade can be obstructed by supplying exogenous survival signs. �
The mutation underlying Huntington’s disease is an expanded trinucleotide which is fundamental for normal development and can be regarded as a cell survival gene. Transgenic models demonstrated increased apoptosis in the neurons of an embryonic neuroectoderm. During apoptosis, caspase-3 (apopain) is improved by a gain of function associated with the triplet expansion. This is supported by the overexpression of specific trinucleotide repeats in transgenic mice. �
Most cerebellar ataxias are associated with neuronal loss. Ataxia-telangiectasia, caused by mutations in the ATM gene, is considered to have an apoptotic component. ATM shares extensive and significant homology with the DNA dependent protein kinases involved in DNA damage responses at different cell cycle checkpoints and is downregulated in most patients with ataxia-telangiectasia. The simple fact that inappropriate p53 mediated apoptosis is the major cause of death in ataxia-telangiectasia cells suggests that the mutation causes improper triggering of apoptosis by otherwise non-lethal DNA injury. �
From the familial form of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis gain of function, mutations in the gene encoding copper-zinc superoxide dismutase (sod-1) develop a dominant pro-apoptotic sign. Although cell harm by the accumulation of free radicals can trigger apoptosis, these mutants can induce apoptosis both in nerve cells in culture and in transgenic mice. Mental retardation in Down’s syndrome has also been associated with abnormal apoptosis. Although cortical neurons from fetal Down’s syndrome brains are different, they then degenerate and undergo apoptosis, according to research studies. �
Degeneration is blocked by treatment with free radical scavengers, suggesting that a defect in the metabolism of reactive oxygen species is the trigger for apoptosis. In Parkinson’s disease, the death of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra was demonstrated to occur through apoptosis and may be obstructed by delivery of glial-derived neurotrophic factor. Alzheimer’s disease is associated with the progressive accumulation of ?-amyloid protein which is the fundamental component of neural plaques. The ?-amyloid peptide can cause neurons to undergo apoptosis in vitro research studies. �
Inherited Metabolic Disease
Furthermore, few data suggest that the acute encephalopathy associated with maple syrup urine disease is because of the induction of apoptosis by an accumulating metabolite of leucine, ?-keto isocaproic acid. This compound is a potent inducer of apoptosis in central nervous system glial cells and the result is significantly enhanced in the presence of leucine. Phenylalanine and leucine do not induce apoptosis in this system, suggesting that this result is ultimately unique. �
There are two ways in which a cell can die, necrosis and apoptosis. While necrosis occurs due to an external factor which harms the cell, apoptosis follows a controlled, predictable routine. Apoptosis is generally known as programmed cell death. Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, has many fundamental functions in the developing structures of the human body, however, research studies have demonstrated that abnormal apoptosis can be associated with the development of a variety of neurological diseases. – Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight
The purpose of the article above is to discuss the process of apoptosis, or cell death, in neurodegenerative diseases. Neurological diseases are associated with the brain, the spine, and the nerves. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal and nervous health issues as well as functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. To further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 . �
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �
Additional Topic Discussion: Chronic Pain
Sudden pain is a natural response of the nervous system which helps to demonstrate possible injury. By way of instance, pain signals travel from an injured region through the nerves and spinal cord to the brain. Pain is generally less severe as the injury heals, however, chronic pain is different than the average type of pain. With chronic pain, the human body will continue sending pain signals to the brain, regardless if the injury has healed. Chronic pain can last for several weeks to even several years. Chronic pain can tremendously affect a patient’s mobility and it can reduce flexibility, strength, and endurance.
Formulas for Methylation Support
XYMOGEN�s Exclusive Professional Formulas are available through select licensed health care professionals. The internet sale and discounting of XYMOGEN formulas are strictly prohibited.
Proudly,�Dr. Alexander Jimenez makes XYMOGEN formulas available only to patients under our care.
Please call our office in order for us to assign a doctor consultation for immediate access.
If you are a patient of Injury Medical & Chiropractic�Clinic, you may inquire about XYMOGEN by calling 915-850-0900.
�
For your convenience and review of the XYMOGEN products please review the following link.*XYMOGEN-Catalog-Download �
* All of the above XYMOGEN policies remain strictly in force. �
The human brain is the human body’s control center. It is a fundamental structure in the nervous system, which also includes the spinal cord and a system of nerves and neurons. The nervous system controls every structure and function in the human body. When the brain is damaged, it can ultimately affect the function of the nervous system, including memory, sensation, and even personality. Brain disorders include any health issues which affect the brain. This includes health issues due to: �
genetics
illness
trauma or injury
What are the Different Types of Brain Disorders?
There is a wide array of different brain disorders which can vary tremendously in symptoms and grade of severity. Below, we will demonstrate the different types of brain disorders and discuss several of the most common types of brain disorders. �
Brain Injuries
Brain injuries are generally caused by blunt trauma or injury. Trauma or injury can damage brain tissue, neurons, and nerves. This damage affects the brain’s capacity to communicate with the rest of the human body. Several brain injuries include: �
hematomas
blood clots
contusions or bruising of brain tissue
cerebral edema or swelling inside the skull
concussions
strokes
Common symptoms of brain injuries include: �
vomiting
nausea
speech difficulty
bleeding from the ear
numbness
paralysis
memory loss
problems with concentration
Furthermore, other common symptoms you may develop include: �
high blood pressure
low heart rate
pupil dilation
irregular breathing
Depending on the type of brain injury, treatment may include medication, rehabilitation, or brain surgery. Approximately half of the people with acute brain injuries require surgery to remove or repair damaged tissue and to relieve stress. Individuals with mild brain injuries may not require any treatment past medication. Many people with brain injuries may also require: �
physical therapy
speech and language therapy
psychiatry
Brain Tumors
Occasionally, brain tumors can develop and they can become quite dangerous. These are known as primary brain tumors. In other instances, cancer from other regions of the body can spread into the brain. These are known as secondary or metastatic brain tumors. Brain tumors may be categorized as either malignant (cancerous) or benign (noncancerous). Healthcare professionals also categorize brain tumors as grades 1, 2, 3, or 4. Higher numbers indicate more severe cancers. �
The main cause of the majority of brain tumors is largely unknown. They can occur in people of all age. Symptoms of brain cancers generally depend on the size and location of the tumor. The most common symptoms of brain tumors include: �
headaches
seizures
tingling sensations or numbness in the arms or legs
nausea
vomiting
changes in personality
difficulty with movement or balance
changes in hearing, speech, or vision
The type of treatment you’ll receive for the brain tumors depends on a variety of different factors, such as the size of the brain tumor, your age, and your overall health and wellness. The main types of treatment for brain tumors include: �
chemotherapy
radiation therapy
surgery
Neurodegenerative Diseases
Neurodegenerative disorders cause the brain and the nerves to gradually deteriorate as people age. They can affect an individual’s personality and cause confusion. They are also able to destroy the brain’s tissue and nerves. Brain disorders like Alzheimer’s disease may develop over time with age. It can slowly impair memory and thought processes. Other diseases, such as Tay-Sachs disease are genetic and can develop at any age. Common neurodegenerative diseases include: �
Huntington’s disease
ALS (amyotrophic lateral sclerosis), or Lou Gehrig’s disease
Parkinson’s disease
all types of dementia
Several of the most common symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases include: �
Memory loss
forgetfulness
apathy
anxiety
agitation
a loss of inhibition
mood changes
Neurodegenerative diseases can ultimately cause irreversible damage and symptoms generally have a tendency of becoming worse as the disease progresses. New symptoms can also continue to develop over time. Unfortunately, there’s no treatment for neurodegenerative diseases, however, treatment can help improve symptoms. The treatment goal for these health issues is to reduce symptoms and maintain quality of life. Treatment often involves the use of medications to control symptoms. �
Mental Disorders
Mental disorders, or mental illnesses, are a wide variety of health issues which affect behavior patterns. Much like the brain disorders previously mentioned, symptoms can also vary. Several of the most commonly diagnosed mental disorders are: �
depression
anxiety
bipolar disorder
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
schizophrenia
The symptoms of mental disorders can vary based on the health issue. Different people can experience exactly the same mental disorders differently. Make sure to speak with a healthcare professional if you notice any changes in your behavior, thought patterns, or mood. The two major types of treatments for mental disorders are medication and psychotherapy. Different treatments work better for different health issues. Many individuals find that a combination of both is best. �
If you believe that you may have a mental disorder, it’s important to speak to a healthcare professional for diagnosis in order to determine which treatment program is suitable for you. There are many resources available to treat mental disorders. �
What are the Risk Factors for Brain Disorders?
Brain disorders can affect anyone, however, the risk factors can ultimately vary for different types of brain disorders. Traumatic brain injury is most common in children under 4 years old, young adults between 15 and 25 years old, and adults 65 and older. Brain tumors may affect any individual at any given age. An individual’s risk for developing brain disorders generally depends on the individual’s genetics and their vulnerability to environmental risk factors, such as radiation. �
Older age and family history are the most important risk factors for neurodegenerative diseases. Mental disorders are extremely common. About 1 in 5 American adults have experienced a mental health issue. Your risk may be greater if you: �
have a family history of mental illness
have or have had traumatic or stressful life experiences
have a history of misusing drugs or alcohol
have or have experienced a traumatic brain injury
There are a variety of treatment approaches which can help improve brain disorders. The outlook for people with brain disorders depends on the type and severity of the brain disorder. Several of these health issues can be easily treated with the utilization of medication and other therapy methods and techniques. Other brain disorders, such as neurodegenerative diseases and several types of traumatic brain injuries have no cure, however, treatment approaches can help improve symptoms. – Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight
The purpose of the article above is to discuss the different types of brain disorders, including neurodegenerative diseases. Neurological diseases are associated with the brain, the spine, and the nerves. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal and nervous health issues as well as functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. To further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 . �
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �
Additional Topic Discussion: Chronic Pain
Sudden pain is a natural response of the nervous system which helps to demonstrate possible injury. By way of instance, pain signals travel from an injured region through the nerves and spinal cord to the brain. Pain is generally less severe as the injury heals, however, chronic pain is different than the average type of pain. With chronic pain, the human body will continue sending pain signals to the brain, regardless if the injury has healed. Chronic pain can last for several weeks to even several years. Chronic pain can tremendously affect a patient’s mobility and it can reduce flexibility, strength, and endurance.
Formulas for Methylation Support
XYMOGEN�s Exclusive Professional Formulas are available through select licensed health care professionals. The internet sale and discounting of XYMOGEN formulas are strictly prohibited.
Proudly,�Dr. Alexander Jimenez makes XYMOGEN formulas available only to patients under our care.
Please call our office in order for us to assign a doctor consultation for immediate access.
If you are a patient of Injury Medical & Chiropractic�Clinic, you may inquire about XYMOGEN by calling 915-850-0900.
�
For your convenience and review of the XYMOGEN products please review the following link.*XYMOGEN-Catalog-Download �
* All of the above XYMOGEN policies remain strictly in force. �
In humans, the nervous system consists of the central nervous system and the peripheral nervous system. The central nervous system, or CNS, consists of the brain and the spinal cord. It is in the CNS where the review of information occurs. The peripheral nervous system, or PNS, consists of the neurons and parts of neurons outside the CNS, including sensory neurons and motor neurons. Sensory neurons bring signals into the CNS, and motor neurons carry signals out of the CNS. �
The cell bodies of PNS neurons, such as the motor neurons which control skeletal muscles, are found in the CNS. These motor neurons have long extensions, known as axons, which run from the CNS all the way to the muscles with which they connect with or innervate. The cell bodies of additional PNS neurons, such as the sensory neurons which provide information on touch, pain, position, and temperature, are found outside the CNS, in which they are found in clusters known as ganglia. The axons of peripheral nerves which run through a common pathway are bundled together to form nerves. �
Types of Neurons
According to their roles, the neurons within the human nervous system can be separated into three different categories, including the sensory neurons, the motor neurons, and the interneurons. Below, we will describe the types of neurons. �
Sensory Neurons
The sensory neurons get information about what’s going on inside and outside the human body and they bring that information into the CNS where it could become processed. By way of instance, if you pick up a hot coal, the sensory neurons with nerve endings in your fingertips would communicate the information to your CNS that the hot coal is really hot. �
Motor Neurons
The motor neurons get information from other neurons and they communicate commands to your muscles, organs, and glands. In the previous circumstance where you picked up a hot coal, the motor neurons innervating the structures on your fingers would cause your hand to let go of the hot coal. This is only one example of the role of motor neurons. �
Interneurons
The interneurons, which can only be found in the CNS, connect one neuron to another. They get information from other neurons and communicate information to other neurons. When picking up a hot coal, the signals from the sensory neurons in your palms communicate to the interneurons on the spinal cord. Several of these interneurons communicate to the motor neurons controlling your finger muscles and cause your hand to let go of the hot coal. The motor neurons may communicate the signals to the interneurons in the spinal cord where it would ultimately create the perception of pain in the brain. �
Interneurons are the most numerous types of neurons and they are involved in processing information, both through basic neural circuits, such as those triggered by picking up a hot coal, as well as in much more complicated circuits in the brain. Different combinations of interneurons in the brain and spinal cord allow you to draw the conclusion that objects which look similar to a lump of hot coal shouldn’t be picked up and they will also help keep that information for future reference. �
Anatomy of a Neuron
Neurons, similar to other cells, consist of a cell body known as the soma. The nucleus of the neuron is found in the soma. Neurons need to create proteins and most neuronal proteins are synthesized in the soma. Various processes, known as appendages or protrusions, run from the cell body. These include many small, branching processes, known as dendrites, and another process which is generally longer than the dendrites, known as the axon. It is possible to generalize that most neurons have three standard functions. These neuronal functions are mirrored in the anatomy of the neuron, including: �
Communicating information or signals.
Combining incoming signals to determine whether or not the information should be passed along.
Communicate information or signals to target cells, including muscles, glands, or other neurons.
Dendrites
The first two functions of the neuron, receive and process incoming signals or information, generally occur in the dendrites and cell body. Incoming signals can be either excitatory, which means that they tend to make the neuron generate an electrical impulse, or even inhibitory, which means that they tend to keep the neuron from generating an electrical impulse. �
Most neurons receive many incoming signals or information throughout the dendrites. A single neuron can have more than one pair of dendrites and they may receive thousands of incoming information or signals. Whether or not a neuron is excited into firing an electrical impulse is dependent on the amount of each of the excitatory and inhibitory signals, or information, it receives. If the neuron does end up firing an electrical impulse, the action potential or nerve impulse runs down the axon. �
Axons
The axon separates into many branches and develops bulbous swellings known as axon terminals or neural terminals. These axon terminals communicate with target cells. Axons are different from dendrites in several ways, as demonstrated below. �
The dendrites generally taper and are frequently covered with little bumps known as spines. The axon generally stays the same diameter for most of its length and doesn’t have spines.
The axon exits from the cell body through a special region known as the axon hillock.
Last but not least, many axons are covered with a special insulating compound known as the myelin, which helps them communicate the nerve impulse quickly. The myelin is never found on dendrites.
Synapses
Neuron-to-neuron communications are created on the dendrites and cell bodies of other neurons. These connections, known as synapses, are regions where information is taken from the first neuron, or the presynaptic neuron, to the target neuron, or the postsynaptic neuron. The synaptic connections between neurons and skeletal muscles are known as neuromuscular junctions and the connections between neurons and smooth muscle cells or glands are known as neuroeffector junctions. �
Signals communicate through chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters. When an action potential runs down an axon and reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell. Neurotransmitters run through the synapse and connect to membrane receptors on the postsynaptic cell, communicating excitatory or inhibitory information. The first two basic functions of the neuron are important for the third basic function of the neuron. �
The third function of the neuron, communicating signals to target cells, is also completed through the function of the axon and the axon terminals. Just as one neuron may communicate through many presynaptic neurons, it may also ultimately communicate through synaptic connections on numerous postsynaptic neurons throughout different axon terminals. �
Glial Cells
The glia, or glial cells, are fundamental to the nervous system. There are more glial cells in the brain than there are neurons. There are four types of glial cells in the adult human nervous system. Three of these, the astrocytes, the oligodendrocytes, and the microglia, are only found in the central nervous system or the CNS. The fourth, the Schwann cells, are only found in the peripheral nervous system or the PNS. Below, we will discuss the four types of glial cells, or glia, and their functions. �
Astrocytes are the most numerous types of glial cell. There are also many different types of astrocytes and they each have a variety of different functions, such as regulating blood flow in the brain, maintaining the composition of the fluid which surrounds the neurons, and maintaining communications between nerves in the synapse. During development, astrocytes help neurons find their way and add to the development of the blood-brain barrier, which also helps protect the brain. � Microglia are associated to the macrophages of the immune system and act as scavengers to remove dead cells and debris. �
The oligodendrocytes of the CNS and the Schwann cells of the PNS share a similar function. Both types of glia, or glial cells, create myelin, or the insulating compound which develops a sheath around the axons of many neurons. Myelin increases the speed with which an action potential runs down the axon and it plays a fundamental role in nervous system function. �
Additional types of glial cells, along with the four main types of glia, include satellite glial cells and ependymal cells. �
Satellite glial cells cover the cell bodies of neurons in PNS ganglia. Satellite glial cells are believed to support the role of the nerves and function as a protective barrier, however, their role is still misunderstood. Ependymal cells, which line the ventricles of the brain and the central canal of the spinal cord, have hairlike cilia which help improve the flow of the cerebrospinal fluid found within the ventricles and spinal tract. The human nervous system is necessary for our function. �
Neurons are special cells found within the nervous system which communicate with other neurons in unique ways. The neuron is the basic working unit of the brain and it is designed to communicate information, or signals, to muscles, organs, gland, and other nerve cells. Most neurons consist of a cell body, an axon, and dendrites. The cell body contains the nucleus and the cytoplasm. Understanding the structure and function of the neuron is fundamental for overall health and wellness. – Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight
The purpose of the article above is to discuss the purpose of functional neurology in the treatment of neurological disease. Neurological diseases are associated with the brain, the spine, and the nerves. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal and nervous health issues as well as functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. To further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 . �
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �
Additional Topic Discussion: Chronic Pain
Sudden pain is a natural response of the nervous system which helps to demonstrate possible injury. By way of instance, pain signals travel from an injured region through the nerves and spinal cord to the brain. Pain is generally less severe as the injury heals, however, chronic pain is different than the average type of pain. With chronic pain, the human body will continue sending pain signals to the brain, regardless if the injury has healed. Chronic pain can last for several weeks to even several years. Chronic pain can tremendously affect a patient’s mobility and it can reduce flexibility, strength, and endurance.
Formulas for Methylation Support
XYMOGEN�s Exclusive Professional Formulas are available through select licensed health care professionals. The internet sale and discounting of XYMOGEN formulas are strictly prohibited.
Proudly,�Dr. Alexander Jimenez makes XYMOGEN formulas available only to patients under our care.
Please call our office in order for us to assign a doctor consultation for immediate access.
If you are a patient of Injury Medical & Chiropractic�Clinic, you may inquire about XYMOGEN by calling 915-850-0900.
�
For your convenience and review of the XYMOGEN products please review the following link.*XYMOGEN-Catalog-Download �
* All of the above XYMOGEN policies remain strictly in force. �
Functional neurology primarily focuses on the fundamentals of neuron health and it is mainly based on neuroplasticity theories. It’s believed that the brain and the nervous system are capable of changing, and can become malleable, due to a reaction to certain stimulation. The brain can be shaped by sensory, motor, cognitive, or emotional experiences. �
The creation of synapses in the nervous system depends on the stimulation they receive. Neurons which receive too much stimulation are the ones which become stronger and those which don’t receive stimulation become weaker and eventually diminish. It is believed that it is possible to create new neurons even after there has been damage to the nervous system. �
The Role of Functional Neurology
Functional neurology evaluates changes in the nervous system before these become severe health issues. The practice of functional neurology has been adopted by several modalities of practice, such as chiropractic, psychology, occupational therapy and even by conventional healthcare professionals. Functional neurology is commonly practiced by chiropractors. �
The practice of neurology involves applying neuroscience research from laboratory studies to determine how it can be practically applied in health care. The brain is protected by supporting the nervous system. The ultimate goal of functional neurology is to treat brain and nervous system health issues without the utilization of drugs or together with conventional treatment approaches. Functional neurologists can help treat a wide variety of neurological health issues, including: �
Neurodegenerative disorders: Alzheimer�s disease, Parkinson�s disease, dementia, and multiple system atrophy.
Demyelinating conditions: Multiple sclerosis, transverse myelitis, and leukodystrophies.
Trauma and brain injuries: Concussions and whiplash-associated disorders.
Vestibular conditions: Motion sickness, dizziness/disequilibrium, labyrinthitis, vertigo, and Meniere’s disease.
Movement disorders: Tics, restless leg syndrome, myoclonus, and dystonia.
Neuro-developmental conditions: Autism spectrum disorders, ADHD, Asperger’s syndrome, Tourette syndrome, dyslexia, processing disorders, and global developmental delay.
Headaches and pain syndromes: Cluster headaches, complex regional pain syndrome, migraines, and fibromyalgia
Functional neurological disorders which are best referred to as a group of physical, sensory and cognitive symptoms which do not seem to have an identifiable organic etiology.
Functional Neurology Treatment
The primary goal of functional neurology is to promote, support, and restore the optimal function of the brain and the nervous system, as opposed to the absence of pathology. Sometimes it’s not always possible to determine the natural source of a person’s neurological disease and its symptoms. Functional neurology can be particularly beneficial in these instances. �
The patient’s medical history and a non-invasive evaluation are required for diagnosis. Treatment is determined based on the patient’s current and targeted well-being. Any blood tests, x-rays, MRIs and/or other tests are also evaluated. During the evaluation, the healthcare professional will observe all aspects of the patient, including eye movements and posture, which can demonstrate the function of the brain and the nervous system. Blood pressure, pulse, and reflexes are also evaluated. �
Neuro-developmental conditions and behavioral disorders are generally treated with functional neurology. Anxiety is commonly increased in patients with these type of health issues, therefore, it is recommended that the non-invasive evaluation is performed in a way which does not trigger anxiety in the patient. Functional neurology treatment is individualized and every part of the treatment approach is customized to the individual’s treatment requirements. �
Functional neurology emphasizes on encouraging patients to practice self-care so that face-to-face treatment with a healthcare professional does not continue for months or years without end. Home exercise programs are developed to treat the associated health issues, meaning that functional neurology treatment is incorporated into the patient’s daily activities. �
Biochemistry and Nutrition in Functional Neurology
Functional neurology treatment focuses on retraining the brain. Neurons need energy and stimulation to survive and thrive, therefore, functional neurology treatment may involve exercises, such as eye exercises, cognitive activities, balancing activities, and joint adjustments. Different stimulation can affect different regions and pathways in the human brain. �
Moreover, functional neurology treatment may also involve a nutritional and biochemical approach by eliminating several factors which may potentially affect neurons. These can ultimately include toxins, chemicals, and infection, among other factors. Dietary modifications and supplementation may also be included to provide optimal energy for neurons. �
An individualized treatment approach is applied to each individual otherwise there exists the risk of over-stimulating and exceeding the capacity of a patient’s nervous system. The goal of functional neurology treatment is to improve brain and nervous system health, neural processing, communication, and all signaling involving the brain and the entire human body. �
Functional neurology focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of the human brain and the nervous system utilizing sensory and cognitive based treatment methods and techniques to promote, support, and restore neuroplasticity, integrity, and functional optimization. Functional neurology can be utilized to help improve a variety of neurological diseases and health issues, including Alzheimer’s disease. Functional neurology is frequently practiced by chiropractors. – Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight
The purpose of the article above is to discuss the purpose of functional neurology in the treatment of neurological disease. Neurological diseases are associated with the brain, the spine, and the nerves. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal and nervous health issues as well as functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. To further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 . �
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �
Additional Topic Discussion: Chronic Pain
Sudden pain is a natural response of the nervous system which helps to demonstrate possible injury. By way of instance, pain signals travel from an injured region through the nerves and spinal cord to the brain. Pain is generally less severe as the injury heals, however, chronic pain is different than the average type of pain. With chronic pain, the human body will continue sending pain signals to the brain, regardless if the injury has healed. Chronic pain can last for several weeks to even several years. Chronic pain can tremendously affect a patient’s mobility and it can reduce flexibility, strength, and endurance.
Formulas for Methylation Support
XYMOGEN�s Exclusive Professional Formulas are available through select licensed health care professionals. The internet sale and discounting of XYMOGEN formulas are strictly prohibited.
Proudly,�Dr. Alexander Jimenez makes XYMOGEN formulas available only to patients under our care.
Please call our office in order for us to assign a doctor consultation for immediate access.
If you are a patient of Injury Medical & Chiropractic�Clinic, you may inquire about XYMOGEN by calling 915-850-0900.
�
For your convenience and review of the XYMOGEN products please review the following link.*XYMOGEN-Catalog-Download �
* All of the above XYMOGEN policies remain strictly in force. �
Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, or CNS, of mammals and it primarily interacts with both metabotropic and ionotropic receptors to activate and regulate postsynaptic responses. Both AMPA and NMDA receptors are fundamental mediators of synaptic plasticity, the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken, where dysregulation of those receptors leads to neurodegeneration in a variety of disorders, including Alzheimer’s disease. �
The main difference between AMPA and NMDA receptors is that sodium and potassium increases in AMPA receptors where calcium increases along with sodium and potassium influx in NMDA receptors. Moreover, AMPA receptors do not have a magnesium ion block while NMDA receptors do have a calcium ion block. AMPA and NMDA are two types of ionotropic, glutamate receptors. They are non-selective, ligand-gated ion channels, which mainly enable the passage of sodium and potassium ions. Furthermore, glutamate is a neurotransmitter which creates excitatory postsynaptic signals in the CNS. �
�
What are AMPA Receptors?
AMPA, also known as ?-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate, receptors are glutamate receptors which are in charge of maintaining the rapid, synaptic transmission in the central nervous system. AMPA receptors have four subunits, GluA1-4. Moreover, the GluA2 subunit is not permeable to calcium ions because it contains arginine from the TMII region. �
Furthermore, AMPA receptors are involved in the transmission of the majority of the rapid, excitatory synaptic signals. The increase of the post-synaptic response depends on the amount of receptors in the post-synaptic surface. The type of agonist which activates the AMPA receptors is ?-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid. The activation of the AMPA receptors leads to the non-selective transportation of cations, such as sodium and potassium ions, into the cell. This generates an action potential in the postsynaptic membrane. Figure 1 below demonstrates a diagram of AMPA receptors. �
What are NMDA Receptors?
NMDA, also known as N-methyl-d-aspartate, receptors are glutamate receptors which are found in the postsynaptic membrane. The NMDA receptors are made up of two varieties of subunits: GluN1 and GluN2. The GluN1 subunit is fundamental for the role of the receptor. This subunit can associate with one of the four types of GluN2 subunits, GluN2A-D. �
Furthermore, the main utilization of the NMDA receptors is to maintain the synaptic response. In the resting membrane potential, these receptors are inactive due to the creation of a magnesium block. The agonist of the NMDA receptor is N-methyl-d-aspartic acid. L-glutamate, including glycine, can connect to the receptor to activate it. Upon stimulation, NMDA receptors activate the calcium influx along with the potassium and sodium influx. Figure 2 demonstrates NMDA receptors. �
Similarities Between AMPA and NMDA Receptors
AMPA, NMDA, and kainate receptors are the three main types of glutamate receptors.
These are ligand-gated ion channels which activate and regulate sodium and potassium ions.
These are known due to the type of agonist which activates the receptor.
Moreover, the activation of these receptors produces excitatory postsynaptic responses or ESPSs.
Furthermore, several protein subunits connect together to form these receptors.
Difference Between AMPA and NMDA Receptors
AMPA receptors are best known as a type of glutamate receptor which activates in excitatory neurotransmission and connects ?-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid which additionally works as a cation channel. Where the NMDA receptors are best known as a type of glutamate receptor which helps in excitatory neurotransmission and also connects N-methyl-D-aspartate. This is the most fundamental difference between AMPA and NMDA receptors. �
AMPA receptors have four subunits, GluA1-4 while NMDA receptors have a GluN1 subunit associated with one of the four GluN2 receptors, GluN2A-D. Activation can also be a difference between AMPA and NMDA receptors. AMPA receptors are only activated by glutamate while NMDA receptors are activated by different agonists. The agonist for AMPA receptors is ?-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionic acid where the agonist for NMDA receptors is N-methyl-d-aspartic acid. �
Ion influx is a fundamental difference between AMPA and NMDA receptors. Activation of AMPA receptors results in the sodium and potassium influx while the activation of NMDA receptors leads to an increase in potassium, sodium, and calcium. Another distinction between AMPA and NMDA receptors is that AMPA receptors do not contain a calcium ion where NMDA receptors contain magnesium receptors. Also, AMPA receptors are responsible for the transmission of the majority of the rapid, excitatory synaptic signals while NMDA receptors are responsible for the modulation of the synaptic response. �
AMPA receptors are glutamate receptors which lead to the influx of sodium and potassium ions. NMDA receptors are another type of glutamate receptors which result in the influx of calcium ions with potassium and sodium ions. The main difference between AMPA and NMDA receptors is the type of ion influx associated with their activation and regulation. �
Several varieties of ionotropic glutamate receptors have been demonstrated in the following article. Three of these main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system, or CNS, are ligand-gated ion channels best known as AMPA receptors, NMDA receptors, and kainate receptors. These ionotropic glutamate receptors are best referred to after the agonists which activate and regulate them: AMPA or ?-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole-propionate, NMDA or N-methyl-d-aspartate, and kainic acid. – Dr. Alex Jimenez D.C., C.C.S.T. Insight
The purpose of the article above is to demonstrate the difference between AMPA and NMDA receptors for brain health. Neurological diseases are associated with the brain, the spine, and the nerves. The scope of our information is limited to chiropractic, musculoskeletal and nervous health issues as well as functional medicine articles, topics, and discussions. To further discuss the subject matter above, please feel free to ask Dr. Alex Jimenez or contact us at 915-850-0900 . �
Curated by Dr. Alex Jimenez �
Additional Topic Discussion: Chronic Pain
Sudden pain is a natural response of the nervous system which helps to demonstrate possible injury. By way of instance, pain signals travel from an injured region through the nerves and spinal cord to the brain. Pain is generally less severe as the injury heals, however, chronic pain is different than the average type of pain. With chronic pain, the human body will continue sending pain signals to the brain, regardless if the injury has healed. Chronic pain can last for several weeks to even several years. Chronic pain can tremendously affect a patient’s mobility and it can reduce flexibility, strength, and endurance.
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